Autumn 2004 Newsletters
Looking to the Future
Massachusetts Agriculture in the Classroom (MAC) is working on a number of new initiatives that will help us to reach out to more educators and create stronger connections between agriculture and the classroom.
MAC is partnering with the UMass 4-H program to develop two curriculum units for middle school focusing on genetics. The project, titled “Green Genes,” was partially funded by a $6,000 Enrichment Grant from the National Agriculture in the Classroom Program. Kim Anderson Pond at Worcester County 4-H is writing and piloting the new curriculum. The grant supports development and field-testing, an educational piece on genetics for MAC’s winter newsletter and six hours of training using genetics activities for 30 middle school teachers. In addition to training, each educator will receive a CD and access to web materials.
The Northeast Farm Credit Ag- Enhancement Program awarded a $5,000 grant to MAC to support agricultural literacy training, hands-on education and resources. The project, titled “Growing Agriculture in the Classroom,” will provide a college-credit course in agriculture for new teachers and student teachers. Each educator will be assigned a MAC board-member liaison and will receive three years of follow-up support.
We are developing an on-line version of our educational newsletter. We had intended to start with this issue, but only a few people subscribed. To give us more time to get the on-line version started, the Massachusetts Department of Agricultural Resources and Massachusetts Farm Bureau Federation sponsored printing and postage for this newsletter. To save money and natural resources, we would like to begin sending the on-line version this winter. Subscribe by sending your e-mail request to us at the address on the back of this newsletter.
MAC created new donation boards that are available to farm stands, nurseries, farmers markets and county fairs to set out in customer sales areas. In this way, members of the public can make a donation to MAC while patronizing these farm locales, creating a stronger base of support.
As details become available we will provide information on our web site about how to register for the new “Ag Tag” license plate. Funding will support MAC and other state agricultural-education organizations.
Grapes
Botanically, grapes belong to the family Vitaceae. Grapes are juicy berries, with thin skins. They grow on vines in clusters as small as six, or as large as 300 berries. Grapes may be black, blue, golden, green, purple, red or white.
Originating in both hemispheres, grapes grow all over the world both as wild vines and in tended vineyards. They are used as a source of table fruit, raisins, vinegars and wines. More than 8,000 varieties have been hybridized for cultivation from the European Grape (Vitis vinifera) and the North American Fox grape (Vitis labrusca) and Muscadine Grape (Vitis rotundifolia). Of these, fifty varieties are grown for fresh eating, a few for grape juice or to make currants, raisins or sultanas (white raisins) and most become wine. About 66 million metric tons of grapes are harvested annually throughout the world.
History
The European Grape, Vitis vinifera, was cultivated as early as 6000 BC in the region between the Black and Caspian Seas near present day Northern Iran. There in the Zagros Mountains, clay vessels containing grape residue have been found dating back to 5000 BC. Grape cultivation progressed south and west from there.
The Sumerian people of ancient Iraq mentioned the fruit in an epic poem of Gilgamesh written in 3000 BC. About the same time, Phoenician traders brought grapes to Egypt, where tomb paintings from 2400 BC depict grape growing, harvesting and wine making.
The Greeks began planting grapes around 1700 BC. The Chinese received grapes by the second century BC. through trade exchanges along the Silk Road. By the first century BC, grape cultivation had reached southwestern Europe. The Romans spread grapevines throughout Europe and into the British Isles. They also developed the first trellis system, planting birch trees next to the grapevines, so that the grapes could climb.
European explorers eventually spread Vitis vinifera grapevines to southern Africa, Australia and the Americas. Spaniards established the first vineyards in Mexico as early as the 1520s.
More than 40 species of native grapes grew wild in North America. The Massachusetts colonists tasted these grapes and attempted to make wine from them. They describing the taste as “foxy” or “musky” and soon imported the more familiar Vitis vinifera from Europe. Wine was so important to these early colonists, that more than 20,000 acres of grapevines had been planted by the early 1700s. Governor Winthrop took over Governor’s Island in Boston for the purpose of growing grapes. Unfortunately, these imported vines quickly died. Only those grapes bred from native species or hybrids of European and native grapes succeeded.
Disease Kills European Grapes
The settlers blamed the grape failure on cold temperatures and year-round high humidity. While these problems may have hampered growth, it was a tiny parasitic louse called Phylloxera that was responsible for killing the European grapevines. Over time, the native species had developed a resistance to the louse, but imported grapevines had no resistance, and their root systems were quickly destroyed.
By the 1870s, phylloxera had quietly traveled from the Americas to Europe. Millions of grapevines died before the tiny pest was discovered. To save the European vineyards, Vitis vinifera was grafted onto phylloxera-resistant rootstock from Massachusetts. Today all European grape varieties are grow on the roots of their American cousins.
Grapes in Massachusetts Today
Once it had been learned that grafted grapevines could survive, it took an additional 50 years for European grapes to be reintroduced into the Northeast. By the 1950s vineyards had been established in the Finger Lakes area of New York and by the mid-1970s experiments had begun with Vitis vinifera plantings in Massachusetts.
Ideal grape growing locations were found near the coast. There the Gulf Stream tempers the weather. Vine stay cool, slow to start and protected from frosts in spring and fall harvest season is lengthened and frost free.
Today in Massachusetts, there are nearly one dozen vineyards with accompanying wineries, and one or two growers who produce wine grapes for wineries. Some local wineries also import grapes from out-of-state.
In total,116 acres of Massachusetts farmland are planted in Vitis vinifera hybrids. This includes 48 acres of Chardonnay, 24 acres of Pinot Noir, and 12 acres of Riesling. The rest are planted in a variety of grapes including 12 acres of French American hybrid grapes.
Each acre produces 2 ½ to 6 tons of grapes, depending upon the variety. The raw value of these grapes is approximately $700,000. Once converted into wine, the grapes will produce 60 cases of wine per ton (a case is 2.4 gallons or 12 bottles), representing a value of $1.5 million dollars.
Grape Culture
Grape growing is a year-round job. In winter, the vines are pruned to force new growth and discourage crowding. Cuttings from pruned canes may be grafted onto a dozen native rootstock to produce new vines. After four years, these vine will produce fruit. With care, vines may bear for as long as 100 years.
In early spring compost is added. Healthy nutrient-rich soil is important, since the grapevines draw all their nutrients from the top foot of soil. In spring and summer, the trellises are maintained. When daytime temperatures reach about 68 degrees F., the flowers bloom and shoots emerge next to the flower clusters. As the flowers die, tiny green berries appear. These grow and ripen into clusters of grapes.
In summer, the vines are hedged, a process that cuts the tops of the vines above the trellises. Leaves are also pruned to expose the grape clusters to sunlight. If necessary, the grapevines are fertilized using a broadcast or foliar feed. Grapevines need plenty of sunshine and ample water. Vineyards may install irrigation systems, usually sprinklers or drip irrigation.
Harvest and Processing
Wine grapes are harvested in mid-September to early November, depending upon the year. They may be harvested by hand using clippers or by machine. The grape-harvesting machine straddles the vines, moving along the row, shaking the vines and knocking the grapes into bins.
The bins are taken to the winery from the field and the grapes are processed immediately. If it rains during harvest; fungus diseases such as botrytis develop, affecting the type of wine to be made.
Massachusetts vineyards produce mostly white sparkling wines. To make these wines, the grapes are put into a press for a couple hours. The resulting juice goes into vats with yeast and is fermented for two weeks. The wine is then clarified until spring when it is blended and bottled. By the harvest time the following fall, all of the previous year’s wine is bottled. Some wines may be available for sale immediately, others are aged for as long as twelve years.
Native Grapes
While there are as many as ten varieties of wild grapes, growing in Massachusetts, there are no production vineyards of native grapes. However, many home owners and farmers may pick wild grapes or plant one or two rows of North American hybrid cultivars for small scale production of grape jams, jellies, pies or juice. The two most popular of the native grapes are Fox grape (Vitis labrusca) and Muscadine grape (Vitis rotundifolia). Cultivated strains from the fox grape, including the Concord (purple), Catawba (red), Delaware (red), Niagra (white), Chautauqua and Worden varieties, make excellent table grapes. However, because they do not keep well for shipping and storage, they are not popular commercially. The best known variety of Muscadine grape is Scuppernong, with medium-sized, bronze-colored berries.
The Concord Grape
In the United States, most grape juice and jelly is made from the Concord grape, a large, robust and aromatic purple berry with a skin that easily slips off. The Concord Grape is a hybrid of the native New England fox grape (Vitis labrusca).
At his Concord, Massachusetts’ farm, Ephraim Wales Bull planted as many as 22,000 seedlings in an attempt to breed a grape that would thrive where European cuttings had failed, ripen early to escape killing frosts and also possess a full-bodied flavor. He succeeded in 1849, naming the new cultivar the Concord grape. In 1853, he won first prize at the Boston Horticultural Society exhibition. The grape was so popular that he received as much as $1,000 for a single cutting.
A Vineland, New Jersey dentist, Dr. Thomas Welch, created the first non-fermented grape juice in 1869, using 40 pounds of home-grown Concord grapes. He cooked the grapes for a few minutes, squeezed the juice out with cloth bags, and poured the fresh grape juice into 12 one-quart bottles on the kitchen table. He processed the juice by stoppering them with waxed corks and boiling them in water, killing native yeasts that would cause fermentation. From these small beginnings, the first processed juice business began.
In 1896, Dr. Welch's son, Charles, transferred the juice operation to New York. There, in 1897, 300 tons of Concord grapes were processed; today that amount exceeds 350,000 tons.
Today, most Concord grapes are grown for juice production. They are not popular commercially as table grapes, since they do not hold up well in stores. In addition, Concord grapes are used to make jellies and jams, and for flavorings in gum; candy; ice cream; sherbet; milk shakes; gelatin desserts; cream of tartar and filling for cakes, doughnuts and cream puffs.
Grapes in the Classroom
Grape Recipes
Frozen Grapes: The only ingredient is seedless grapes. Choose grapes that are plump, fresh-looking and securely attached to their stems. Avoid any with dry, brittle stems or those that are cracked or leaking moisture. Wash the grapes well and pat completely dry with paper towels. Place small clusters or whole bunches in a baking pan and place in freezer for several hours or until just frozen. Remove from the freezer and serve.
Grape Slush: Ingredients: 1 ½ cups seedless grapes; 8 ounces of thawed orange juice concentrate or fruit juice; and 3 cups crushed ice. In a blender combine all ingredients and puree until smooth. Pour into glasses and serve. Makes 4 servings each with: 175 calories; .6 g protein, 45 g carbohydrates, .5 g fat, .9 g dietary fiber, and 4 mg sodium.
Dried Grapes: Our climate is too humid for drying grapes outdoors. An oven or dehydrator can achieve the same results. Wash whole seedless grapes and remove stems. Dip in boiling water for 30 to 60 seconds. Dry at 130 to 135 degrees F. until pliable with no moisture pockets.
Grape Salsa and Chips: Ingredients: ¾ cup each of red and green seedless grapes, coarsely chopped; ½ cup chopped sweet red pepper; ¼ cup chopped green onion; 2 tablespoons chopped cilantro; 1 tablespoon each olive oil and lime juice; 2 teaspoons finely chopped jalapeño pepper; ½ teaspoon salt; ¼ teaspoon bottled hot pepper sauce; Reduced-fat or baked tortilla chips.
Combine all ingredients except chips; mix well. Refrigerate for at least 1 hour to allow flavors to blend. Drain well before serving with chips. Makes about 1 ½ cups of salsa.
From the California Table Grape Commission.
Wine and Vinegar
Wine and vinegar are made from grapes. The change from juice to wine happens because of a process called fermentation. Yeast, a one-celled organisms, is added to the juice and converts its sugar into alcohol. If this wine is exposed to air for a prolonged time, bacteria will change the alcohol into acid and the wine will become vinegar.
Wine and vinegar were born before recorded history. People crushed grapes and other fruits to make juice. Somehow a batch of juice was allowed to ferment and the resulting drink became wine. Grapes soon became important as a source for both wine and vinegar. The alcohol in wine acted as a preservative, killing micro-organisms and making wine safer to drink than water. Roman soldiers were given rations of vinegar to drink, it was also considered a healthy drink. Some people still drink vinegar today.
Wine also became a valuable export. Roads and waterways that carried trade goods, allowed people to exchange customs and ideas. In this way, wine helped to spread the influence of major civilizations. Wine’s social importance evolved into religious importance. Cults worshiped wine gods and wine became an important part of both Christian and Jewish ceremonies.
Any grape can be crushed and fermented to produce wine. However, wine grapes contain the proper amounts of natural fruit acids and sugars to produce quality wines. For the best results specific varieties and blending expertise are required. Grapes have been hybridized to produce the best-results for the climate and growing conditions of specific vineyards. Massachusetts vineyards produce many fine wines from a diverse variety of grapes. The three most commonly grown wine grapes are Chardonnay and Riesling for white wines and Pinot Noir for red wines.
Grape Nutrition Information
Serving Size: About 3/4 cup grapes
Amount per serving:
- Calories: 90
- Calories from Fat: 10
- Total Fat: 1 g. --- 2 %
- Saturated Fat: 0 g. -- 0%
- Cholesterol: 0 mg. -- 0 %
- Sodium: 0 mg. -- 0 %
- Total Carbohydrates: 24 g. -- 8 %
- Dietary Fiber: 1 g. -- 4 %
- Sugars: 23 g.
- Protein: 1 g.
- Vitamin A: 2%
- Vitamin C: 25%
- Calcium: 2%
- Iron: 2%
Eating grapes is good for your health and your heart. Grapes have a high sugar content, making them a good energy source. They contain Vitamin A, B1, B2, C, Iron, potassium, niacin and rutin, minerals, pectin, organic acids (malic, tartric) and fiber.
Grape skins and seeds contain tannins. The seeds also contain an edible oil which is rich in Vitamin E and poly-unsaturated fatty acids. When extracted using heat, it does not become rancid and can be used in cooking.
Phytonutrients are biologically active substances responsible for giving plants their fragrance, color and flavor. They also help protect plants from pests, viruses, bacteria and excessive sunlight. Grape phytonutrients include catech, resveratol, quercetin, and anthocyanin.
Resveratol, found primarily in the skin of grapes, has been found to fight liver and colon cancers. It is also believed to reduce heart disease through its anti-inflammatory properties.
Other studies are looking into the positive effects of grapes on lowering LDL and total cholesterol, decreasing oxidation of LDL cholesterol, reducing clotting of platelets, lowering both systolic and diastolic blood pressure and improving arterial elasticity. In addition, compounds found in purple grape juice and wine have been found to fight urinary tract infections and to block a dangerous cardiovascular effect of second-hand smoke.
Did You Know