An
Introduction to Permaculture
Farming
& Gardening
Charles
Greenaway
Contact Charles at charliegreen@earthlink.net
The term
permaculture was created in the 1970's by a very conscious Australian
agriculturalist named Bill Mollison. Originally, the term was applied
specifically to agriculture. Since then the term has broadened to represent the
concept of permanent culture; sustainable, optimal, living conditions for all
earth's beings. Thus, the practice of permaculture extends it self across all
aspects of life in and out of the garden, the self, and all across the world.
The goal of permaculture is really to fulfill our original role as stewards of
the earth assisting the mother and all creatures in their process of
self-perpetuation and therefore restoring her original harmonious nature. How
far and deep the practice reaches is up to the individual practitioner.
This means a
deep personal connection with the earth. It means not competing with others,
but rather working with and for each other. It means seeing solutions rather
than problems, and working smart, not hard. It requires a commitment to using
sustainable energy practices. And it mandates the return of food production to
the cities.
The study of
permaculture begins with the study and observation of the interactions among
all life. All of the patterns and inter/independences must be recognized,
utilized, as well as respected. Once nature's connections and patterns are well
understood, surroundings can be arranged in such a way that many aspects are in
support of one and other. Each element within the system must perform multiple
functions and each function must be supported by many elements. In order for
this all to work in an organized fashion extensive documentation is needed.
The following is
a summery of important steps and considerations in design, as well as some
useful techniques for a permaculture farm or garden.
Choosing the
Land
There many
important factors to consider when choosing land for a project. Are there good
sources of water, organic soil, rocks, flat or hilly land, shade, forests,
fields, structures, and wind blocks? What are the thermo/ hydro dynamics of the
area?
There are many
things you can determine about the land simply by being on it an observing. The
whether patterns and thermodynamics (which greatly effect growing season and
habitat practicality) can very greatly from land less than a mile away. Trees
with branches that point mainly in one direction indicate the direction of
prevailing winds. Large trees in dry lands indicate a water source deep in the
earth. Blueberries and dandelions indicate acidic soil and thorny shrubs can
indicate overgrazing or poor land management.
If the land does
seem to have good quality resources and desirable layout then the next step is
to learn its history. This can be done with research at the local town hall and
library as well as some conversations with the hopefully friendly neighbors
(another important consideration). It is important to know what has happened on
and around the land over the years. Old landfills, waste dumping, accidents,
local hazardous materials, and poor land management methods of the past, can
have great effect on the soil and what comes from it. Land that has been
derogated is not unworthy of permacultural practice. Actually needs sustainable
land management practices more than ever. Those practices just might not
include growing food.
Another factor
in determining a project setting is the world directly surrounding you. It is
important for the sustaining of life on earth that resources become more localized
and not just trucked from region to region. Are there adequate resources such
as organic manure, fertilizers, mulch, and hay near by? Will the local
community support your project? Are they accustomed to this sort a project and
are therefore endowed with many of the resources needed to support such a
project? Or, will you be exposing the community to a new way of life and
therefore have many bridges to cross and people to teach?
Landform
The
topographical futures of the land can create a number of microclimates in a
very small area. Mountains, hills (slopes), valleys, soil, vegetation, bodies of water, drainage lines, and rocks, all
have great effects on wind speed, erosion, temperature, moisture levels,
sunlight exposure, and hazards such as floods and fire.
Areas less than
a half mile away from each other can have very different hours of sunlight and
shade wind, thermo/ hydrodynamics, and hazard exposure.
Vegetation
modifies temperature by: transpiration, convective transfer of heat, shading,
wind protection, and insulation.
The aspect and
zenith of the sun over the course of the year are important considerations of
crop, livestock and structure placement. South facing slope in the northern
hemisphere will have more hours of sunlight each day. Anything facing southeast
or southwest will achieve its maximum temperature in the mornings and evenings
respectively. The livestock, resource storage, and living structures can be
thermo-regulated by simply designing and placing them so as to receive and
retain a steady amount of solar energy. Thermoregulation in buildings can be
achieved by the following methods:
* Installing
heavy insulation: R-30 walls, R-60 ceiling, high-R low-E double pane windows.
* Using wind
breaks. Building the north side into or near the size of a mountain or hill,
and placing building the north side against a forest or thick patch of trees
will both help stop winter winds in the northeast region.
* Calculating
the exact angle, size, overhang, and clearance for windows so as to maximize
solar gain in the winter and minimize it in the summer.
* Install a
ventilation system that can be modified with the seasonal changes so as not to
create stack effect in the winter, but still take advantage of the summer
breezes.
* Using a solar
mass such as a large stone indoor (properly placed and sized) can help heat in
the winter nights and cool in the summer days.
Zoning
This is a
practice in energy efficient planning, which is, in effect economically
efficient planning. Essentially the goal is to arrange the elements of the
project according to how often we need to visit them, for use or service. The
system uses theoretically designated zones branching out from the center of
activity (the house) like ripples on the water. The system has some great logic
to it although in actuality there are likely to be at least a few obstacles,
which will alter the plan.
Zone 0 is the
center of activity. The house, the barn, or even the village on a larger scale.
Zone I is close
to the house and is the area most which you will need to interact with the most
often. Structures may include the greenhouse, workshop, storage shed, and
drying rooms for harvest. Vegetation can consist of the herb garden, some small
trees for fruit and shade, and salad greens. Essentially anything that will be
used in the kitchen on a regular basis. For livestock, perhaps there are some
small animals, such as rabbits and guinea pigs. There will also be resources
such as fuel for the house (wood, gas, solar), mulch and compost, and of course
a solar powered dryer (a.k.a. clothesline).
Zone II is still
intensively maintained. There may be a few larger trees with an under story of
small fruit trees, as well as large shrubs, all resulting in some kind of a
windbreak for the house, small livestock, and herb gardens.
The chickens and
milk cows are housed here. Other structures may include terraces, and
trellises. This is also a good place to install some fire resistance such as
mulberry and white beech trees, small ponds and possibly a looping road which
runs the border of zones II & III.
Zone III
contains the orchards, pastures and large animals, the main crops and sheds for
shelter and feed storage. Also semi-managed wild bird species. There will need
to be windbreaks, woodlots and larges trees such a nut and oak for the animals
to forage. A larger pond would also be good to collect water for irrigation,
livestock drinking source, and just to keep the moisture level up in general.
Zone IV is
mostly raw nature and pastures. Yields may include timber, native plants, and
animal products. It is also a space that can be managed for endangered species
and biodiversity in general. Bill Mollison suggests the possibility of cutting
zone IV inwards towards the center of activity, making like a slice of the
permaculture zoning pie.
Zone V is wild.
It a place we go to learn from and be a part of nature without really
manipulating it. This is also a good space for rejuvenation and meditation.
Water Management
When planning a
permaculture site it is important to consider where you different species will
be placed based on hydrodynamics. Some plants prefer wet or dry land and some
need the help of animals and insects who may prefer wet or dry land. Olive and
almond trees when place on a dry hillside only need minimal rain. In this
planning it is also important to remember that what is bone try today may be
sopping wet ing just a few week. Land history, underground topography, drainage
lines must be studied thoroughly before making decisions.
The flow of
water from rain, ponds, streams, rivers, and lakes can be manipulated in a
number of ways, which are beneficial, and energy saving to the irrigation and
drainage process.
Dams can be used
to create ponds for irrigation and livestock drinking water storage. When
carefully built on a slope or hill dams can also be used to facilitate water
moving into the lower levels of the soil and in the case of fire they can be
released onto the lands below.
Swales are long,
level, excavated hollows in flatlands and low-slope landscapes. They are
intended to store water in he underlying soils and sediments. They intercept overland water flow, hold it
for a few hours or days and let it slowly infiltrate as groundwater recharge
and into soils and tree root systems. Trees are planted around them helping to
reduce salt buildup and retard erosion. The leaves that fall into the swales
decompose and promote humus buildup.
Rainwater can be
collected in tanks well above he ground. This will provide pressure to move the
water to other areas on the land via hoses or tubing.
Photovoltaic and
even some passive solar set ups can also provide sufficient energy to run a
well pump for irrigation system.
Water can modify
temperature through evaporation. In arid climates small lakes, ponds, and pools
can play an important role in garden humidity levels. Large bodies of water,
such as the ocean and lakes, change temperature very slowly. This means that
surrounding areas thermodynamics are also slowed. Thus a farm near the ocean in
a temperate region may not frost.
Soils &
Compost
Much like the
food we eat soil is the substance ultimately composes the physical plant
organism. Thus, soil health may be the single most important factor in growing
plants. If you are what you eat you are as healthy as your soil. The health of
any soil can be improved in a number of different ways. Adding organic matter
(compost) to soil can increase the humus content. Nutrient deficiencies can be
improved using organic fertilizers and green manures.
Aeration and
hydrodynamics can be improved by adding perlite, vermiculite, peatmoss, mulch
and tiny burrowing creatures such as earthworms.
Mulching is done
in order to prevent soil from drying out. Straw, wood chips, large leaves and
other organic matter are placed on the surface of the soil. This forms a
protective layer similar to that found in nature when plants shed their leaves.
Sheet mulching,
uses layers of materials to create a new layer of organically rich topsoil.
Layering compost above the ground and covering it up with mulch creates the
ideal environment for decomposition and also suppresses potential weed growth.
Compost is made
from organic matter such as manures, straw and vegetable scraps. By adding
stinging nettle, comfrey and yarrow the essential elements nitrogen,
phosphorous, and potassium, are added to the mixture. Soil crustaceans such as
earwigs help with the decomposition process. Sticks in the middle of compost
heaps are used as indicators of temperature and moisture content. The presence
of black ants can be a sign that more water needs to be added to the compost.
Making compost
tea is a method for extracting nutrients and increasing the microbes of compost.
A blend of compost and worm castings is steeped for approximately 24 hours,
along with other natural ingredients, and aerated with oxygen to promote
aerobic microbial activity.
Organic
fertilizers are used to condition the soil, feed microbial life, balance
nutrition, and stimulate plant growth. Popular products include feed grade
materials (alfalfa, soybean, and feather meals), animal and human manures, and
minerals (soft rock phosphate, potassium sulfate, calcium, magnesium, etc.),
fish emulsion, kelp, and greensand.
Feed grade
materials have fertilizer values of about 3-2-2 and also contain a broad
spectrum of important trace elements. Fish emulsion is high in nitrogen and is
a source of several trace elements. It seems to considerably hasten the early
growth of plants. Kelp will: 1) stimulate beneficial soil microbe activity
improving plants natural resistance to stresses, 2) increase the levels of
chlorophyll production, and 3) create an extended root system giving plants
greater access to nutrients and water from the soil. Green Sand is an organic
fertilizer mined in New Jersey. It binds loose sandy soil and loosens clay
soils. It contains important trace elements beneficial to plant development and nourishment. It's nontoxic
and does not leach away and is also a good food source for bulbs.
Green manure is
produced by planting legumes which have a symbiotic relationship with
rhizobium, a bacteria that fixes nitrogen from the air and stores it in nodules
found on the roots of these plants. Once mature this green manure is ploughed
or dug into the soil, providing a source of beneficial organic nutrients
(mainly nitrogen).
Companion
planting, Intercropping, and Guilds
Planting
different plants within close proximity to one another not only ensures that
the available land is used to the maximum but by tapping into the natural
associations the productivity of the crop yield itself can be increased.
Synergistic effects and symbiotic relationships in nature can be used to
enhance the functioning of the overall system within which different species of
food producing plants grow. Plants with deep roots can be grown with plants
with shallower ones and plants with similar nutrient needs can be grown
together.
Growing
chamomile next to vegetables such as leeks can increase their size considerably
and lettuce, onions and kale grow well together, as do onions and tomatoes,
radishes with snap peas, leeks with carrots, and Swiss chard with parsnips.
Some plants, however, do not grow well together at all. Beans and onions are a
good example of this.
Guilds are
combinations of leaf crops, legumes, fruits and root crops in a stacked
arrangement that use the vertical space to the maximum, and maximize productive
use of available sunlight. Combinations of various plants such as a fruit tree
with a leaf crop at its base and a vine on its trunk can ensure that several
food producers, located within the same geographical space, can make use of the
different levels of solar energy. An example guild could be a Banana trees,
beans, beetroots and poppies. In another example guild could be celery, beans
and a tamarillo plant (tree tomatoes) growing together.
Crop Rotation
and Succession
A few plants
enjoy be grown in the same spot harvest after harvest, year after year. However
most plants benefit from growing in beds that have had other specific crops
previously growing in them. The cabbage family follows peas because peas are
harvested and cleared by August allowing for a vigorous winter green manure
crop to be established. Being very hardy and nutrient rich brassicas require
very healthy soil. Sweet corn follows the cabbage family because in contrast to
many other plants corn shows no decline in yield when following a brassica
crop. Potatoes follow sweet corn because research shows corn to most benefit
the yield of potatoes.
Growing short
season crops in the same bed as long ones can do maximize bed space. The short
season crop can be harvested before the long season crops are in need of that
space.
Relay planting,
sowing a few seeds of each plant in intervals of a week or so, will allow a
steady harvest though out the season.
Seed Saving
Setting aside
some of the plants that are harvested in order to let them go to seed for the
next season is an important part of a self-sustaining permaculture garden.
These seeds are can be collected and stored in a cool dry place or they can be
left to grow in the same spot the following season.
There are fewer
and fewer varieties of edible plants eaten by people today. We are eating only
a few kinds of fruits and vegetables. Farmers are needing to apply more, and
more fertilizers and pesticides to control the plagues that these mono-crops
nurture.
Not all Seed
survives in seed banks, the seed that survives these banks is very good at
being stored for long periods. It is unlikely to create the best plants for
eating, nutrition, adaptability for different climates or resistance fungi and
pests.
The seed we grow
in our home system (when we carefully select the best specimens) becomes ideal
for our local climate, growing medium, pests and fungi. The seed you can buy
will most likely be accustomed to another climate or microclimate.
Animals
Animals play a
vital role in any permaculture system. They perform a wide variety of
functions. Most will supply high quality manure and natural fertilizer. All
will provide body heat, which when used efficiently can greatly remove any
heating resource needs. Many will provide gas', which can be captured using an
enclosed system. CO2 can be used in greenhouses and methane can be used as a
fuel. Chickens and pigs make good tractors. While in search of worms insects
and roots they manage to weed, turn over, and manure turf in small areas. Goats
enjoy blackberry patches and will clear and manure them before a new season
begins. Bees and other insects will help with pollination as well as eating
pests. And of course most animals will also make good friends and / or food.
Wild animals are
essential to any healthy ecosystem. Though if the land on which they forage is
unhealthy they may be by to take their share of your crops. There are four ways
to deal with this. The first two are to shoot them or fence all your gardens.
Those solutions are cruel and inefficient, respectively. The other two ways are
to plant crops they can enjoy around the perimeter of yours and also to leave
scrap behind for them after harvest. In this case learning to communicate your
intention to them is key. Some people accomplish this by repeating a similar
method over time so that the animals pick up on it and some do it through
meditation and intentional interspecies psychic communication.
Pests and Fungi
"You
don't have a snail problem, you've got a duck deficiency"
-Bill Mollison
Chemical
insecticides are not really a good solution to pest problems. They can poison
you, your food, your animals, and your soils. The environmental and health
hazards of pesticides are well documented and managed by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Studies on animals have shown that of the 34 chemicals
encompassing 95% of lawn pesticides, 10 are carcinogens, 12 caused birth
defects, 20 are neurotoxins, 7 alter the reproductive process, 13 caused liver
or kidney damage, and 29 are sensitizers or irritants.
There are, in
fact, many safe and natural ways effectively manage pests.
Natural
anti-bacterial soap will kill many insects, and cayenne pepper dust will
certainly deter them. Ladybugs, nematodes, minute pirate bugs, and praying
mantis will eat many plant predator insects. Frogs, birds and bees, when
attracted to an area by ponds, flowers, shelter, and food sources will also
feed off a variety of plant predator insects.
Planting
coriander near leafy greens and potatoes will help deter aphids as it secretes
a substance they strongly dislike. Plants such as dill, fennel, daisies and
marigolds will attract insects that feed off plant predator insects. White
cedar and neem tree contain insecticides, as do tobacco and rhubarb.
Baking soda and
corn meal can control fungal disease. A tablespoon can be added to water with
citrus and sprayed lightly on foliage of plants afflicted with black spot,
powdery mildew, brown patches and other fungal disease symptoms.
The Not So
Secret Life of Plants
Plants are not
only living organisms, but they seem to have some cognition as well. Many
studies have been conducted in the later half of the twentieth century to prove
this point. The most widely know body of work, which expresses this point is a
book called The Secret Life of Plants written in 1973 by Peter Tompkins and
Christopher Bird. Most people who spend their lives with plants do claim to
develop a personal relationship with them. The shamans of South and Central American
claim that plants teach them how to heal, and tell them what their properties
are. The point here is mainly that the life of growing plants like the life of
growing animals is very much affected by the spirit with which they are raised.
Love, communication, healing energy, overall feeling of safety and respect, as
well as good music (especially classical) have all been proven to greatly
improve plant development.
A Final
Reflection on the Essence of Permaculture's Mission
"The
ultimate end to a growth economy is the same as an analogous growth: cancer.
But for national economies, the victims are nature, soils, forests, people,
water, and quality of life. There is one, and only one, solution, and we have
almost no time to try it. We must turn all our resources to repairing the
natural world, and train all our young people to help. They want to; we need to
give them this last chance to create forests, soils, clean waters, clean
energies, secure communities, stable regions, and to know how to do it from
hands-on experience "
-Bill Mollison