THE USE OF DECISION CASES IN
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
by Steve Simmons and
Kent Crookston
Introduction
It has been estimated that most persons make as many as 1,000 decisions per day. Most of these decisions are trivial but some may be momentous. Helping students become better decision makers when faced with dilemmas is one of the desired outcomes of education in colleges of agriculture. Employers often attest to the high level of technical knowledge possessed by graduates, but these employers frequently cite lack of confidence and experience in integrating and applying knowledge in the process of making decisions as a weakness in contemporary higher education.
Since the early 1900s the Harvard Business School has employed decision case studies to provide a more realistic focus to the education of business administrators. The Harvard MBA program was established on the premise that "wisdom" in making decisions in business is not readily acquired through passive, lecture-dominated educational approaches (Gragg, 1940). Over decades of experience the decision case concept has proven to be excellent for directly engaging students in dilemmas and tough decisions inherent with the profession of business administration.
Most people associated with education in agriculture have experienced or employed "case studies" in some form during their student or teaching careers. These "cases" may have been in the form of simulations or problem sets, field trips, role play, or a descriptive critique of a professional problem or dilemma. However, most agricultural cases have not been decision cases. Since 1987, the University of Minnesota College of Agriculture has been adapting the natural resources, food science/nutrition and the environment. This effort culminated in the establishment in 1991 of the Program for Decision Cases within the College. To date, over 30 decision cases have been developed at Minnesota covering a wide range of agricultural disciplines. In addition, a "capstone" course considering integrated crop management has been created and formatted entirely around decision cases.
What are decision cases?
Decision cases can be described as "a documentation of reality." They are like a snapshot of a situation or dilemma that requires that a decision be made. A decision case is developed in such a way as to allow students to become a "participant" in the situation and to become fully engaged in trying to resolve the dilemma and reach a decision. All of the agricultural decision cases developed at Minnesota thus far have been written in narrative text with supporting exhibits. However, we intend to experiment with video and interactive computer-formatted cases suitable for alternative audiences such as primary and secondary level students and distance education users.
A decision case usually includes:
* identity and role of the decision maker
* background information on the organization or industry in which the dilemma is set
* delineation of the principal issues in the case
* establishment of the objectives of the decision maker
* delineation of evident decision options
* exhibit materials that provide background data and support information needed by the decision maker.
Some exhibit materials may be presented in formats such as video or slides.
Decision case deliberations are highly structured and purposeful. Students are often assigned a case with sufficient time to develop options and to define their decision position prior to the class. For the actual classroom (or extension audience) deliberation of the case, an Interpretive Note is prepared to help guide the instructor-user. This Note is not made available to the students. It provides information to the instructor regarding objectives for the case, suggested uses of the case, questions that can serve to guide discussion of the case, and the case developer's personal interpretation of the key case issues, questions and decision options. The Note may also include a summary of the decision made in the actual case. If so, it is important that instructors who choose to share the actual decision outcome avoid making that decision the "correct" decision in the minds of the students.
What are the outcomes of using decision cases in education?
Decision cases are noted for their strength in helping students to achieve "higher order" educational outcomes such as critical thinking, problem solving and the exercise of mature judgment. It has been suggested that the case approach to education is less efficient for transferring specific knowledge (Dooley and Skinner, 1977) since considerable time is spent in discussion in order to achieve resolution of the case. However, our experience suggests that specific knowledge presented in the context of a case and its deliberation is assimilated more easily and is better retained. Thus, the decision case can be a powerful tool for helping students acquire knowledge on a selective basis.
We have found that decision cases produce an atmosphere of interest, curiosity, and informed debate that goes much beyond that achieved through many other educational approaches. Decision cases often produce intense discussion. Some cases precipitate arguments and disagreements, and students sometimes find it frustrating that there is not a specific "right" decision. Cases usually lead to elucidation of several plausible possibilities, each standing the test of sound reasoning and technical validity. Students often learn that no solutions to some situations are totally satisfactory. Nevertheless, a decision must be made despite lack of data or clearly favorable alternatives. Through it all, students of decision cases must approach the case through the "mindset" of the decision maker. This often requires that they set aside their personal biases. Deliberating decision cases therefore can aid in building new understanding when a case involves divergent viewpoints on an issue.
Decision cases, as used at Minnesota, are often coupled with student writing or speaking exercises. Cases are an effective method of enhancing writing or speaking across the curriculum. Research is currently underway within the Program for Decision Cases to further exploit these opportunities.
Although decision cases are traditionally employed in conventional classroom settings, we are finding very positive results in using them in extension education settings as well. Extension audiences often are quite responsive due to their high interest in practical examples, as provided in a case, and the opportunities that a case provides for drawing upon the professional experience base of those audiences. Decision cases are a key feature of the new dairy extension initiative in Minnesota.
What are the outcomes of using decision cases in research?
Agricultural researchers focused on "hard science" are accustomed to using deductive approaches to testing hypotheses and resolving problems. Cases, on the other hand, are an example of inductive research. Cases can be a valuable tool for a researcher who desires to address topics that cannot be approached using traditional deductive techniques. Cases are especially appropriate for use when the element of human behavior is a component of the research problem. Cases, by their nature, require a multifaceted or holistic consideration of a problem. Most cases cannot be replicated, but they still represent a valid and often valuable experience. The decision case offers a means of presenting, interpreting and publishing such experiences so that other researchers can gain access to those experiences or insights. As the number of published decision cases concerning a particular topic or issue increases, it may be possible for researchers to draw broader conclusions from the combined interpretation of the cases.
A second research application for decision cases is to generate hypotheses for further testing. By researching and developing a decision case on a particular topic, an investigator can better define the problem and identify areas of particular information need. Such a need can then be investigated further, often using conventional deductive approaches.
Decision cases as a decision making tool
Decision cases have considerable potential for assisting the process and enhancing the effectiveness of contemporary decision making involving unresolved issues. We have termed this use of decision cases "now-casting." The process involves identifying and rapidly researching/formatting significant and compelling current decisions. A now-case then is administered to individuals or groups of person with interest and expertise related to the decision and its outcome. These individuals/groups take on the role of the decision maker in the case, and propose thorough and creative decision options along with their rationale for each. They also may recommend a specific decision or course of action. The chief advantage of now-casing to aid the decision making process is the opportunity that it provides to engage people directly in the decision-making process, complete with background data and information. Those deliberating the now-case play more than the role of a critic in that they are asked to take on the role of the decision maker at a very specific level. As noted earlier, such an approach can aid in building understanding and achieving synergy between individuals and organizations with divergent or opposing viewpoints on an issue.
How does one develop a decision?
A decision case tells a true story with the decision maker at the heart of that story. The form of narrative in a decision case differs greatly from the usual scientific writing style. Good cases often employ stylistic elements common to the media or journalism in order to help capture the reality of a case situation. When writing a case, the developer usually references exhibit materials as background information and to enhance the capability to analyze the case issues. These exhibits are often presented in as close to their original form as possible, again to enhance the perception of reality in the case.
Dilemmas or problems for possible development into decision cases are everywhere. The difficulty is winnowing these options in order to select the best for development. Early in the case research process, permission should be obtained from the decision maker and his/her organization (if applicable) to develop, use and publish the case. Some sensitive cases are "disguised" in order to protect the identity of the decision maker or organization. Most decision cases at Minnesota have been reviewed in their final form by the decision maker and his/her organization prior to their use or publication. A case release form is usually signed by the decision maker prior to publication or use of the case.
Summary
Decision cases are an established pedagogical approach for education in business that is being successfully adapted for use in education involving food and agriculture, natural resources, and the environment. Decision cases are particularly effective for enhancing student problem solving, critical thinking, and decision making skills. They can also effectively assist students to acquire and retain specific technical knowledge. Although in their infancy, decision cases in agriculture appear to have a bright future for education and research applications, as well as for assisting and enhancing the process of decision making involving contemporary problems and dilemmas.
REFERENCES
Dooley, A. R., and W. Skinner. 1977. Casing casemethod methods. Acad. Mgr. Rev. 2(2): 277-289.
Gragg, C. I. 1940. Because wisdom can't be told. HBS Case Services, Harvard Business School, Boston, MA (Originally published in Harvard Alumni Bulletin, October 19, 1940).
Workshop presented at a conference on Participatory On-Farm Research and Education for Agricultural Sustainability. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, July 30-August 1, 1992.
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Publication Source: "Extension and Education Materials for Sustainable Agriculture," LISA/SARE Project Report, January 1994, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Principal Investigator: Jim King, 402-472-3022, e-mail agcm009@unlvm.unl.edu. Single copies of printed report available at no charge while grant funds last from: Center for Sustainable Agricultural Systems, U. of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0949, 402-472-2056, e-mail cfrancis2@unl.edu.
