Abstracts

Green Pharmacy: Strategies for Reducing the Pharmaceutical Footprint
Nicholas Anastas, Mass. Dept. of Environmental Protection

The presence of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) in the environment has recently received increasing attention in both the popular and scientific press. Improved analytical detection techniques have led to the identification of prescription and “over-the-counter (OTC) drugs, fragrances, personal care products and compounds that can adversely impact the endocrine system. The consequences of these compounds on the environment and the potential impact on human health have not yet been fully investigated.
Each point along the lifecycle of a pharmaceutical or personal care product can be examined for the possibility of reducing the potential environmental risks. Benign-by-design is an approach for applying the principles of green chemical design build molecule from scratch that are less hazardous. Feedstock should ideally come from renewable feedstocks, materials for manufacturing and distribution must be recyclable.
Physicians must be judicious in their prescribing practices to ensure that a three month supply of medicine is not prescribed for a seven day rash. Flushing medications into the domestic sewer systems or into septic systems are no longer acceptable practices. Medicines need to be recycled efficiently through return programs or complete mineralization practices, i.e., combustion/incineration.  
Current wastewater and drinking water treatment systems are not designed to efficiently remove these inherently water-soluble environmental pollutants. Treatment practices must be altered to reflect this new challenge. This talk will present the driver and barriers to reduce the environmental load of PPCPs to the environment through the application of Green Pharmacy.

Concern over Contaminants in Water and Breast Milk: Is it Justified?
Kathleen Arcaro, Veterinary & Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts  Amherst; Tanya Lieberman, IBCLC, Florence, MA; Douglas Anderton, Social and Demographic Research Institute, UMass Amherst

                Concern over contaminants in human milk is persuading some women to stop nursing and switch to formula. Ironically, in an effort to protect their baby from pollutants detected in breast milk, many women may forgo the benefits of breastfeeding and expose their offspring to potential contaminants in formula and cow’s milk. Similarly, consumers wary of municipal drinking water supplies are purchasing bottled water despite the lack of standards for bottled water. Breast milk and municipal drinking water supplies are more closely scrutinized than their more expensive alternatives, formula and bottled water. Most studies documenting the presence of pollutants in breast milk or water supplies were not conceived with the general public in mind and therefore do not address the type and level of pollutants in the alternatives: formula, cow’s milk and bottled water. Popular reporting of these scientific studies, including our own, are leaving mothers and other consumers fearful of the health effects of known and unknown pollutants in breast milk and drinking water. Are their fears justified?  We will discuss research on pollutants in breast milk and drinking water supplies with an emphasis on endocrine disruptive contaminants. Our goal is to provide insight into whether the levels of contaminants currently detected in drinking water and breast milk pose a genuine health risk for infants and young children.

Low Impact Development (LID) Evaluation and Analysis for University Parking
Janelle Bonn and Janice Greenwood, Woodard & Curran, Providence, RI

Urban waterfront property in Rhode Island, like many New England states, is being redeveloped from former industrial uses into vibrant coastal developments. In 2006, the Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council (CRMC) developed the Urban Coastal Greenways Policy for the Metro Bay Region (UCG Policy). Development projects located within the Metro Bay Region can now receive administrative approval from the CRMC if they meet the UCG Policy requirements of 15% minimum vegetation coverage, implementation of low impact development techniques (LID) for stormwater management, public access to the shoreline, and a designated urban coastal greenway with native and sustainable vegetation.
The Harborside Campus at Johnson & Wales University (JWU) is an approximately 110-acre campus situated on a former industrial shipyard located adjacent to Narragansett Bay, New England’s largest estuary. As part of its campus Master Plan, JWU has been constructing academic facilities, student housing, outdoor recreational fields, passive green space, walking trails, and associated infrastructure and parking areas. Approximately 13 acres of surface parking are proposed as part of the Harborside Campus development.               
Woodard & Curran was contracted by JWU to evaluate LID techniques under the UCG Policy for 13-acres of proposed surface parking at their Harborside Campus. Porous pavement, bio-retention ponds, and underground infiltration stormwater management LID techniques were evaluated for the project with respect to suitability, performance, cost and maintenance. This presentation will discuss and compare the applications, benefits and disadvantages of each stormwater management LID technique with respect to client needs and regulatory considerations.   

Ground Water and Climate Change
David Boutt  and Kaitlyn Weider, Geosciences, UMass Amherst; William Guerra, Geography Program, Cornell University
 
Ground water aquifers are dynamic and coupled systems, which show complex nonlinear responses to perturbations in forcing factors such as input from recharge and
discharge outputs. In this talk we briefly review important aspects of ground water
hydrology as related to typical hydrogeologic settings of the northeastern U.S. The focus
of this presentation will be on how perturbations in climate influence water table response, storage
in confined aquifer systems, and coupling to surface water features. Examples of
responses of these systems to current climatic conditions will be provided from three study
sites located in unique hydrogeologic settings. Responses will be summarized and
conceptualized in the context of hydrogeologic principals. Inferences will be made from
these observations about the potential response of systems to changes in future climatic
conditions. Results suggest that variability in the hydrogeologic response of aquifers is a
strong function of geologic setting and that not all systems will respond in homogeneous
ways to future climate changes. The importance of understanding the hydrogeologic
setting of the ground water system is of first-order importance in projecting the response
of ground water systems to climate change.

Regional Water Resources Management for Cape Cod
Thomas Cambareri, Scott Michaud, Gabrielle Belfit and Donna McCaffery, Cape Cod Commission, Barnstable, MA

Cape Cod is a Sole Source Aquifer providing drinking water to a year round population of 240,000. The aquifer sustains over 900 freshwater ponds, numerous wetlands and 89 major coastal estuaries with fresh groundwater. Three hundred and ninety years of western civilized development has resulted in numerous examples of drinking water contamination and impairment of surface water quality. Recognition of the link of land use activities to water quality impairment has resulted in general support for water resource management and protection strategies that have been incorporated into the Cape Cod Regional Policy Plan. The Plan’s objective is to provide “a sustainable quantity of high quality untreated drinking water and to protect and restore the ecological integrity of fresh and marine surface water bodies.” A primary threat to water quality is nitrogen from on-site septic systems. Septic systems are the primary wastewater infrastructure serving over 85% of the population of Cape Cod. Regional water resource management efforts over the last decade have focused on attaining compliance with Total Maximum Daily Loads for nutrients to impaired estuaries.  These efforts have resulted in a restoration strategy requiring the removal of septic system derived nitrogen through significant wastewater infrastructure. The provision of infrastructure is also favored by business and land use planners looking to institute smart growth principles for economic sustainability. The wastewater planning effort has had to overcome numerous hurdles involving public education, science, regulations and technology.  Such plans require a balance of water and nutrient relocation within the aquifer and between sub-watersheds. While many efforts are culminating in extensive wastewater plans, Cape Cod looks to monetary and regional solutions to implement them.

The Effects of Calcium Application on the Chemistry of Soil, Soil Solution, and Stream water at a Northern Hardwood Forest
Youngil Cho, Charles Driscoll, Chris Johnson, Thomas Siccama, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Syracuse University

Watershed 1 (W1: 11.8 ha) at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (HBEF) in New Hampshire (NH), USA was experimentally treated by a calcium silicate (CaSiO3; wollastonite) addition in October of 1999 to assess the role of Ca2+ supply in the structure and function of base poor forest ecosystems. Exchangeable Ca2+ (Ex-Ca), pHs ( in 0.01M CaCl2), effective cation exchange capacity (CECe), and effective base saturation (BSe) increased, while exchangeable acidity (Ex-ApH8.2) decreased in O horizons after the Ca2+ manipulation due to Ca2+ derived from the dissolution of the added wollastonite. Either small increases in Ex-Ca, pHs, CECe, and BSe, decreases in Ex-ApH8.2 or no changes were evident in mineral soil horizons. This horizontal pattern implies that most of the added Ca2+ remained in the forest floor during the study period. BSe decreased with increasing elevation in organic and mineral soil horizons prior to the treatment. This spatial pattern in the forest floor significantly changed after the treatment due to wollastonite dissolution in the shallow soils at higher elevations which seem to be particularly responsive to the chemical addition. Soil solutions and stream water draining the forest floor responded to the treatment by increases in Ca2+ dissolved silica (H4SiO4), pH, and acid neutralizing capacity (ANC), and decreases in inorganic monomeric Al (Ali) concentrations. Despite an increase in SO42- concentration in soil solution and stream water, likely due to desorption of sulfate from soil after the treatment, the watershed showed an increase in ANC compared to the results prior to the treatment, serving to mitigate acidic deposition.

Restoration of Flows to the Ipswich River: Nine LID and Water Conservation Demonstrations
Sara Cohen, Massachusetts Dept. of Conservation and Recreation

The Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation received a $1 million grant from the EPA under the Targeted Watersheds Grant Program to fund a 5-year multi-part demonstration and research project in the Ipswich River Watershed. Four low-impact development (LID) and five water conservation demonstration projects were implemented and studied in the watershed. Projects include: 1) a green roof; 2) LID subdivision; 3) redevelopment of a town beach parking lot using permeable pavement and bioretention; 4) retrofit of a neighborhood with pocket raingardens and permeable pavers; 5) enhancement of a town athletic field with moisture-retaining soil amendments; 6) rainwater harvesting; 7) weather-sensitive (“smart”) irrigation controllers at residences and athletic fields; 8) indoor fixture retrofits and low-flow appliance rebates; and 9) conversion from semi-annual to monthly water billing for residential customers. Additionally, a watershed-wide modeling effort conducted in partnership with USGS evaluated the potential benefit of these approaches if implemented widely across the watershed. Demonstration projects are described, including results from studies evaluating the effectiveness of each strategy in improving recharge and/or water quality or in reducing water demand. Most demonstrations provide interesting quantitative and qualitative results and suggest critical considerations for future studies. Watershed modeling results are also discussed, highlighting the importance of scale when evaluating hydrologic responses expected from the theoretical widespread implementation of LID and water conservation strategies.

Effectiveness of Environmentally Sensitive Site Design and Low-Impact Development on Storm Water Runoff Patterns at Partridgeberry Place LID Subdivision in Ipswich, MA
Renee Fitsik, Daniel Bourdeau, and Marcus Quigley, Geosyntec Consultants; Sara Cohen, Mass. Dept. of Conservation and Recreation; Sandra Fancieullo, US EPA

Partridgeberry Place Subdivision (LID Subdivision) located in Ipswich, Massachusetts incorporates an environmentally sensitive site design by using a variety of Low-Impact Development (LID) storm water management techniques and Open Space Residential Design (ORSD). The LID Subdivision is a compact site design, clustering 20 single family homes on residential lots less than 0.20-acres in size, preserving 74% (28-acres) of the 38-acre site as undeveloped open space. LID techniques used in the LID Subdivision include dry wells, vegetated swales, bioretention, and reduced impervious area. Using an ORSD approach, the amount of open space was maximized and the amount of impervious area was reduced.
An LID Subdivision Watershed and Pre-development Watershed were monitored to determine the runoff volume during different size storm events, for use in model development and calibration. Based on four modeled scenarios (LID Subdivision, Cluster Only Subdivision, Conventional Subdivision and Pre-development Watershed), it appears that the LID Subdivision provides the lowest peak discharge and storm water runoff volumes for the Subdivision when compared to the Cluster Only Subdivision and Conventional Subdivision. The Cluster Only Subdivision peak flows were greater when compared to the LID Subdivision; however, when compared to the Conventional Subdivision, it appears that a clustered design layout has the greatest effect on reduction of storm water volume.  
When the modeled LID Subdivision, Cluster Only Subdivision and Conventional Subdivision runoff volumes were compared to the Pre-development Watershed model, it appears that the LID Subdivision most closely resembles the Pre-development Watershed; however, the runoff volumes are greater by approximately 30 percent. As design storm increases, it appears that the LID Subdivision and Cluster Only Subdivision mimic the Pre-development Watershed condition.

Mobile Sensor-nets and Platforms for Advancing Water Research
Deepak Ganesan, Computer Science, UMass Amherst

Sensor-driven measurements are a critical ingredient of any scientific enquiry on water and related environmental issues. Water research, in particular, is driving the need for high-quality, high resolution, real-time sensor measurements of an increasing number of quality  parameters and at a higher spatial and temporal resolution. In many  scenarios, these sensors must be deployed in such remote regions as forests, watersheds, and rivers that lack existing infrastructure, requiring the sensor network to survive in harsh outdoor environments while subsisting on renewable energy sources. Despite numerous technological advances, a chasm separates technology offered today and the need for easy-to-deploy, self-configuring sensor networks that support real-time, high-resolution sensor streams. The ultimate goal of this work is to enable a fundamental shift in water and environmental monitoring and research towards inexpensive mobile sensor-nets and platforms with mixed radio and acoustic links deployed 
over expansive geographic ranges. This shift will require numerous fundamental advances in three key areas: 1) low-power in-situ and remote sensor architectures that integrate novel techniques for query processing, energy harvesting, power management, and data synchronization; 2) wireless network technologies that can route data and queries despite frequent disruption due to mobility, interference, power-management regimes, and sparse deployment over enormous geographies; and 3) in-network processing and data cleansing techniques to produce high quality data from raw, noisy observations. This talk will discuss recent advances in this technology and provide several examples from regional demonstration projects.

Flash Floods and their Prediction Worldwide
Konstantine Georgakakos, Hydrologic Research Center & Scripps Oceanographic Institute

The Hydrologic Research Center pursues basic research on hydrology, hydraulics, hydrometeorology, and hydroclimatology in order to advance the science and to facilitate, promote, and make feasible the use of science findings in applications for which water is important. A notable example our applied research is the development of the Central American Flash Flood Guidance (CAFFG) system which helps all seven Central American countries to predict and warn residents of impending flash floods. NOAA and USAID sponsored development of this system in response to the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch's landfall in Central America in October 1998. The system produces in real time flash flood relevant information for all seven countries of Central America with a 200 km2 spatial resolution. The CAFFG system uses satellite rainfall estimates and telemetered on-site rain gauge observations, both in real time, to produce for each subcatchment 1-, 3- and 6-hour estimates of mean areal precipitation, 6-hourly estimates of depth-integrated soil moisture, and 1-, 3- and 6-hour flash flood guidance. The information is transmitted to the national forecast agencies to assist with the short term forecast of flash floods. This talk will provide an overview of the highly successful regional CAFFG as well as discuss the challenges inherent in global implementation efforts.

Increasing Precipitation and Runoff Interact with Land Use Change Over the Last 70 Years, the Winooski River Basin, Northern Vermont
William Hackett, Paul Bierman, Donna Rizzo and Lance Besaw, Geology, University of Vermont

Analysis of 72 years (1936 to 2008) of discharge and weather data in the 2,704 km2 Winooski River Basin of Vermont shows statistically significant increases in precipitation and river discharge, as well as regular periodicity. We analyzed data from six discharge stations, both on the mainstem Winooski River and its major tributaries, as well as data from five weather stations within the basin.
At all five weather stations, average annual precipitation is increasing. At a 95% confidence level, this trend was significant at three of the five locations. Similarly, each of the six discharge stations showed an increasing trend in total annual discharge; with half being significant trends. Lowest annual daily flows increased significantly at all stations while highest daily discharges for each year increased at some stations while decreasing at others. In addition to the overall trends in the data, spectral analysis reveals a ~7-8 year periodicity in total annual precipitation and discharge, well correlated with the behavior of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO).   Inconsistent peak flow trends between stations could be evidence of the factors associated with changing land use, which affects the way the sub-basins respond to precipitation.
To quantify land-use change over time in the Winooski River Basin, we analyzed aerial photographs from four different times (1937, 1962, 1974, 2003) using a random sampling of 30 sites in the Winooski River Basin.  Each site contains 300 sample points that are manually classified into four landuse categories.  We show how the abandonment of farmland, the coming of the interstate highway, and the subsequent suburbanization have changed landuse patterns over the past 70 years.  On average agricultural land decreased by 23% while forested and developed area increased by 22% and 2%, respectively.

A Probabilistic Fate and Effects Model for Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products
Miranda Henning, J. Lyndall, M. Bock, T. Barber, and D. Lauren, ENVIRON International Corporation, Portland, ME, Burton, OH, and Philadelphia, PA

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) may be introduced to the environment via household disposal through plumbing drains, followed by conveyance to municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). PPCP residuals contained in WWTP effluent may be discharged to aquatic systems (e.g., rivers, lakes, estuaries), while PPCP residuals in sludge may enter the terrestrial system through land application of sludge-derived biosolids. Rarely are the potential effects of those PPCP residuals on aquatic and terrestrial species considered. An ecological risk assessment framework was therefore developed to allow the quantitative evaluation of potential ecological risks posed by PPCPs in WWTP effluent and land-applied biosolids. In this framework, a fugacity and bioaccumulation model is employed to estimate
distributions of potential ecological exposure under various environmental conditions. The predicted exposure estimates are then compared to measured or estimated effects concentrations for each ecological species of interest, in order to calculate potential risk from aquatic or terrestrial exposures. Additionally, the estimated dietary doses to mammalian and avian species can be compared to toxicity reference values derived from the primary or proprietary literature in order to determine risk from food chain exposures.

Monitoring Ionic Impurities in Water Via a New Family of QCM Sensors
David Hoagland, Polymer Science, UMass Amherst

Many harmful water pollutants are ionic, and sensors able to reliably monitor these pollutants at relevant concentrations are nearly absent (the main exception is the pH meter). To monitor ions of lead, mercury, arsenic, and the like, our research envisages a new class of Quartz-Crystal-Microbalance (QCM) ion sensors that detect ions via their reversible capture in a thin polymer gel layer adhered to the QCM surface. Such a device compares in design, size, and cost to a simple ‘quartz’ wristwatch, suggesting manufacturing and field deployment can be straightforward. Issues that must be confronted in QCM sensor development include capture capacity, layer adhesion and chemical stability, gel swelling, and capture kinetics. Many of these issues have been resolved in laboratory prototypes, which, under ideal conditions, have demonstrated sensitivity at the ppb to ppm level. A poorly addressed issue is selectivity, which we believe can be improved by preparing more sophisticated polymer layers.

2009 Basin Stress Classification in Massachusetts
Linda Hutchins, Mass. Department of Conservation and Recreation

In 2001, the Massachusetts Water Resources Commission (WRC) approved “Stressed Basins in Massachusetts” which identified environmentally sensitive river basins, needing more comprehensive review of environmental impacts or additional mitigation. Working with a task force of stakeholders, WRC staff and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) are updating the classification.
The 2009 Stressed Basins assessment has many enhancements over the 2001 analysis. While the 2001 methodology relied on relative rankings of low-flow statistics at long-term stream gages, the current evaluation compares estimates of near-natural (un-impacted) flow with estimates of flow affected by current water withdrawals and wastewater return flows. A suite of flow statistics is employed, representative of the natural flow cycle and bioperiods throughout the year. Water quality threats will be included, based on MassDEP listings of impaired surface waters and density of impervious surfaces, indicative of potential stormwater impacts on surface water quality. Indicators of aquatic habitat integrity are being included in the 2009 assessment, using data from the Division of Fisheries and Wildlife’s Target Fish Community research. The potential effect of dams on riverine habitat connectivity is also considered in the 2009 analysis, represented as dam density per stream mile.
USGS performed analyses of degrees of hydrologic alteration in support of the 2009 Basin Stress classifications using their Sustainable Yield Estimator tool. USGS delineated 1,515 small sub-basins in Massachusetts for the analysis, then calculated and mapped indicators of hydrologic alteration, water quality, and river connectivity for each sub-basin at both the small scale and at a larger scale, comprising 372 sub-basins within the state. The results of this assessment, assigned thresholds of alteration for each of the indicators displayed in a “report card” format, will comprise the 2009 Massachusetts Basin Stress Classifications.

Monitoring the Restoration of Red Brook, a Small Coastal Stream in Southeastern Massachusetts
Steven Kichefski, Ellen Douglas, Allen Gontz, Environmental, Earth and Ocean Sciences, UMass Boston; Beth Lambert, Tim Purinton, Mass. Department of Fish and Game Riverways Program

The removal of flow barriers has increased greatly over recent years as a form of stream restoration. Often there is little effort, money or guidance available for the long-term post-removal monitoring, therefore it is difficult to assess the overall success of these projects. We are monitoring the restoration of Red Brook, a 4.5 mile long, spring-fed, coastal stream which is currently on the priority projects list of the Massachusetts Riverways Program. The long-term goal of the Red Brook Restoration project is to naturalize the stream and restore its function by removing man-made flumes, eliminating sources of unnatural sedimentation, and enhancing the habitat for sea-run brook trout. We are using a combination of in-situ measurements (for channel geometry and bedload sampling), geophysical techniques (ground penetrating radar) and a remotely-accessed environmental sensor network to monitor flow and sediment movement in the Brook before and after the flume removal. We have based our monitoring approach on the Stream Barrier Removal Monitoring Guide, recently published by The Gulf of Maine Council on the Marine Environment. During the summer of 2008, we quantified the extent of sediment deposits that had built up behind the three existing flumes. The upper flume was removed in September 2008 and we are currently in the process of monitoring changes in the channel geomorphology in response to this removal. By using multiple techniques and semi-annual sampling intervals we will be able to compare monitoring methods and assess the effectiveness of aquatic habitat restoration for the first year after flume removal.

Integrated Climate Change Adaptation Planning for the Natural and Built Environment in the Coastal Zone
Paul Kirshen, Applied Coastal and Environmental Services, Battelle Duxbury MA; N. Richardson, ACES, Battelle, Lexington, MA

At the nexus of the terrestrial and marine environments, the coastal zone has historically faced a large set of natural and anthropogenic stressors and climate change trends will likely exacerbate these impacts. The coastal zone is both disproportionately valued with respect to provided ecological services and particularly vulnerable to stressors that will likely increase both in type and magnitude. Major ocean related impacts include permanent inundation, higher storm surges, increased beach erosion, and saltwater intrusion. With increased precipitation projected for many watersheds, larger nutrient, contaminant, and sediment loads will be delivered to estuaries. At the same time, the coastal zone will be further stressed by continued population growth, urbanization, and land use change. Since the built and natural environments in a region are highly intertwined, there is the need to consider their inter-relationships in climate change adaptation planning.
Current coastal zone management practices are generally inadequate to ensure that societal goals (including maintenance of water quality and quantity needs, sustenance of fish and wildlife populations, habitat preservation, and protection of human life, property, and activities) can be achieved in the future. Management must be done considering the uncertainties in climate change, other coastal influences, how natural (and degraded) coastal ecosystems and the built environment will be jointly impacted by these changes, and the feasibilities of various adaptation actions. Adaptation strategies will also need to consider tradeoffs among competing interests and across different components and services. This presentation will discuss a framework for conceptualizing and evaluating the interactions between the natural and built environments in adaptation and resource management in response to climate change. Key concepts and analytical uncertainties will be highlighted using two generic scenarios.

Impacts of Climate Change on Reservoir Management and Downstream Watershed
Yoon Lee, Taeyeon Yoon, and Farhed Shah, Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of Connecticut

Although it is well known that sedimentation may reduce the storage capacity of a dam, there is relatively modest amount of economic research on the subject. Furthermore, there is no economic literature as yet on the important relationship between climate change and reservoir management. This paper attempts to address both issues in the context of a dynamic optimization model that maximizes social welfare by allowing for periodic sediment removal from a dam in a way that is responsive to changing climatic conditions and the needs of downstream users. The model is applied to the Aswan High Dam in Egypt. The reservoir of this dam impounds 90 km3 of water from two main Nile Rivers. The dam provides substantial economic benefits to Egypt in terms of hydropower, irrigation, and flood control. However, the dam’s storage capacity is being reduced over time due to sedimentation, and climate change is also likely to significant impact it’s future net benefits by altering evaporation and precipitation rates.
Our model computes effective storage capacity of a reservoir by considering sedimentation, evaporation, and precipitation rates simultaneously. Reservoir-level sediment removal is our control variable and this allows us to influence downstream agriculture productivity, which is also determined in part by climate change.
Hydrologic data of the Aswan High Dam is obtained from the International River and Lake Network and regional agricultural data is obtained from the FAO. Climate change forecasting data for the Nile River Basin is based on IPPC reports.
Our simulation results indicate that, without climate change, optimal sediment control increases reservoir life indefinitely and social welfare by 36%, compared to the situation with no sediment control. With climate change that involves relatively high evaporation rates, however, optimum reservoir life is curtailed to 319 years and social welfare is reduced by 21%.

Incorporating Climate Change into Environmental Flows
Paul Leonard, Lauren Elmore, Jeff Keaton, Aylin Lewallen, Sandy Slayton, and Scott Stoodley (Presenter), ENTRIX, Inc., Methuen, MA

Many current approaches for determining environmental flow requirements rely heavily on analysis of historical hydrology data and flow times series analysis. These approaches then use flow and habitat frequency analysis to create an estimate of historical (also referred to as baseline or “unimpaired”) and use them as a proxy for prediction of future conditions and the evaluation of needed environmental flows. Climate change predictions now strongly suggest that in the Southeast, we can expect changing patterns of precipitation and streamflow, including lower summer flows and more extreme high flows. This potentially invalidates or creates bias in the use of historical flow analysis as a proxy for future conditions. We summarize and examine methods now being used for prediction of future precipitation/streamflow and assess how they may be used with widely applied instream flow methods and the potential implications for environmental flow requirements. We consider the need for adding adaptive management or uncertainty/risk analysis to these approaches. We hope that this examination will stimulate discussion and thought about how best to build climate change considerations into environmental flows.

Use of Resource Equivalency Analysis to Calculate Compensatory Restoration and Damages to Groundwater
Christopher Lewis, Industrial Economics, Inc., Cambridge, MA

Resource equivalency analysis (REA) has been used in the U.S. for several decades in a variety of contexts to estimate the scale of compensatory restoration and, in turn, monetary damages for natural resource injury. Due to increased interest in preserving sustainable water resources, natural resource Trustees have begun applying REA to estimate compensation and monetary damages for injury to groundwater resources as components of natural resource damage assessments. REA in this context will be discussed, and two case studies will be presented that demonstrate a methodology for performing injury assessment, injury quantification, resource scaling, resource replacement, and calculation of monetary damages. 

Comparative Analysis of Current Methodologies for Watershed Impact Analysis
Kevin MacKinnon, Weston & Sampson Engineers, Peabody, MA

Three modeling techniques were used in an effort to assess impacts to local hydrology from drinking water withdrawals and wastewater discharges for a proposed mixed-use residential development.  Since the drainage basin of the study area located in southeast Massachusetts is composed entirely of stratified drift, stream flow is highly dependent on groundwater contributions to the river.  Due to this unique hydrology, both surface water and groundwater modeling techniques were used as a basis to assess this complex flow system.  The applied methodologies include groundwater flow models developed by the USGS (MODFLOW and the Stream Depletion Model), and a watershed model developed by Limbrunner, Vogel, and Chapra (2005).  Remarkably similar results were generated through these three methods despite variations in their approach, level of sophistication, limitations imposed by requisite simplifying assumptions, and hydrologic and geologic data needs.  A brief description of local site hydrology and modeling methodologies is presented followed by a discussion of the results and conclusions of the study supporting the assertion that the proposed changes to the hydrologic cycle within the basin will not have a significant impact to streamflow of the nearby river. 

Analysis of Emerging Contaminants in Drinking Water by ON-line SPE/LC/MS/MS
Claude Mallet, Waters Corporation, Milford, MA

The US EPA is mandated by The Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments to publish a contamination candidate list every 5 years with the main objective to identify new health threats for regulation. The third list is under development and expected to be released in 2008 with a broader screening process for potential contaminants. Pharmaceuticals, hormones and endocrine disruptors are categorized as emerging contaminants due to their detection in environmental waters in recent years. It is estimated that well over 3 000 chemicals, such as painkillers, antibiotics, b-blockers, contraceptives, antidepressants, illicit drugs and over-the-counter drugs (OTCs) are introduced in drinking water sources. Pharmaceuticals are not only introduced by human activities, but also through veterinary drugs used in livestock and fish farming. The presence of those chemicals is causing a major concern regarding the creation of bacterial resistance and adverse health effects on human and wildlife.
The analysis was conducted using an automated ON-line SPE LC/MS/MS system. Traditional OFF-line sample preparation method requires large sample volume (1 liter) to reach sub-ppb trace level, extensive manual labor and time. With the automated platform, small injection volumes (< 20 mL) were injected onto an extraction column (reversed-phase polymer sorbent, 30 µm) with a high aqueous flow rate. Weak interferences were removed from the extraction column with a mild organic wash. The analysis continued with the elution of the trapped analytes on the extraction column toward a focusing column (reversed-phase hybrid silica, 3.5 µm) using a back flush method and detection by MS/MS.
The main disadvantage with current drinking water methods is the amount of manual labor (several hours to days) needed to produce an ideal sample for LC/MS/MS. It often requires to process large volume of sample between 1 and 20 liters to ensure a high enrichment ratio for trace level analysis (sub-ppb). The extraction process was reduced to 6 minutes with an automated ON-line SPE LC/MS/MS system with a total analysis time of 20 min. The time consuming extraction of large sample volume was replaced by a small sample volume of 15 mL with total elimination of the evaporation and reconstitution steps. This small sample volume is the equivalent of a 500:1 enrichment ratio and produced a quantifiable signal at 10 ppt. This research focused on the analysis of various pharmaceuticals in drinking water sample such as tricyclic antidrepressants, illicit drugs and benzodiazepines. Also, over-the-counter drugs, such as anti-allergy, anti-acid, cough suppressants and anti-fungal were screened in drinking water samples from local towns and privately own wells.

Utilization of a Dynamic Model to Assess the Impact of Management Strategies on Water Quality in the Blackstone River
James Mangarillo, Malcolm Pirnie, Inc., White Plains, NY

Point source controls have been the primary methodology utilized to reduce pollutant loads into the waterways of the United States for the last 30 years. However, the complex dynamics that occur in the water column in conjunction with increased amounts of urbanization in our watersheds have made point source controls alone inadequate for solving our nation’s water quality problems. In order to predict the impacts that various water quality management strategies may have on water quality, dynamic models capable of simulating the complex interactions in both the water column and the watershed are necessary.
The Blackstone River Water Quality Study was implemented to determine the impact of ongoing and proposed upgrades at wastewater treatment plants on water quality in the Blackstone River and Narragansett Bay. The impacts of changes in land use in the surrounding watershed on water quality in the Blackstone were also analyzed as part of the study.
The study utilizes an HSPF hydrologic model developed for the Blackstone River by the USGS. UMass and CDM then added water quality simulation capabilities to the model as well as extending its simulation period. The model continuously simulates water quantity and quality across 100+ reaches used to model the system for the period 1996-2006.
Utilizing the model simulations, daily outputs of instream water quality constituent concentrations were used to determine the impacts that the simulated water quality management strategies had on water quality in the system. The assessment of the resulting pollution reductions from each management scenario was analyzed in terms of both the reduction in loads transmitted to downstream receiving waters and the resulting reduction in instream concentrations. Comparisons to existing water quality standards and the resulting increases in compliance will also be presented.

Gravel and Sand Mining: Potential Impacts on Drinking Water
Rebekah McDermott, Mass Rural Water Association, Greenfield, MA

Gravel and sand pit operations pose particular contamination threats to New England’s glacially created unconfined aquifers. Where gravel deposits transect the water table, exposing the porous subsurface layers to heavy machinery and industrial equipment creates the opportunity for a spill that could potentially pollute the groundwater in the area. Those responsible for approving extraction operations should be very mindful that gravel deposits are often critical recharge areas for aquifers and public drinking water supplies. The contamination risks that these operations pose to public drinking water supplies are important factors when permitting these industries.
This presentation will explore many of the potential impacts of gravel extraction to groundwater including loss of transmissivity, lowering the water table, temperature fluctuations and pollution concerns due to loss of filter beds. The presentation will address the case studies of local gravel operations and their adjacent wellfields, as well as explore regulatory options to mitigate the potential impacts of sand and gravel operations on the quality and quantity of drinking water supplies in New England.

The Impact of Road Salt on Wells in the Vicinity of the Barnes Aquifer
Robert Newton, Geology, Smith College

A survey of 90 domestic wells was conducted as part of a project to evaluate the impact of road salt on groundwater quality in the vicinity of the Barnes Aquifer in Southampton and Westfield, Massachusetts. Samples from each well were analyzed for pH, alkalinity, major cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+), anions (F-, Cl-, NO3-, SO42-) and aqueous silica (SiO2) together with a small group of trace elements (Li, As, Pb, Ba). Groundwaters were subdivided into 6 classes based on their chemistry. Over 40% (38 wells) were determined to be salt impacted based on a critical chloride concentration of 30.8 mg/L, the concentration that would correspond to the release of 20 mg/L sodium from sodium chloride. Nine of the wells yielded groundwaters with chloride concentrations in excess of 250 mg/L. The water from most of these high chloride wells had calcium concentrations high enough to cause hardness values to exceed the very hard threshold. This hardness was found to be the result of the exchange of salt-derived sodium with calcium on exchange sites in the soils and aquifer materials. An analysis of the relationship between calcium and alkalinity from non-salt impacted wells was used to quantify the amount of excess calcium released by these exchange reactions.
                Almost 20 percent of the wells (17) yielded waters that were determined to be naturally high in sodium based on the molar difference between sodium and chloride. These waters were also found to be anomalously high in fluoride, lithium, and arsenic and came from a geographic cluster of wells near the Westfield-Southampton town line. The wells were all drilled in Mesozoic sediments and likely reflect the nearby presence of lacustrine sediments perhaps associated with fresh water evaporites.

Determination of Selected Estrogens and Pharmaceuticals in the New York City Watershed by Solid Phase Extraction–Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry
Patrick  O’Keefe 1,2 , Lloyd Wilson 2,3, Patrick Palmer 3, Robert Sheridan 1, Thomas King 1 and Robin Storm 1
1 Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany NY; 2 School of Public Health, State University of New York, Albany NY; 3 Bureau of Public Water Supply Protection, Center for Environmental Health, New York State Department of Health, Troy NY            

A four season study was carried out between August 2003 and May 2004 to determine if selected pharmaceuticals were present in the New York City Watershed. Water samples were collected from eight reservoir keypoints and from the effluents of four wastewater water treatment plants in the watershed area. Analyses were conducted for the following twelve compounds: amoxicillin, atenolol, caffeine, carbamazepine, cephalexin, estrone, 17α-ethinylestradiol, 17β-estradiol, ibuprofen, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, and valproic acid. The majority of the detections were found in the wastewater effluents. Carbamazepine was the most frequently detected compound (100%; concentration range: 22-551 ng/L), followed by atenolol (94%; ND-14,200 ng/L), trimethoprim (83%; ND-37,000 ng/L), ibuprofen (61%; ND-14,600 ng/L), and caffeine (49%; ND-37,200 ng/L), and estrone was detected in one sample (56 ng/L). Only ibuprofen (2.5%; ND-932 ng/L) and caffeine (2.9%; ND-177 ng/L) were detected in the reservoir keypoint samples.

Changing the Way Water is Managed in the Connecticut River Basin
Richard Palmer, David Ahlfeld, and Casey Brown, Civil and Environmental Engineering
UMass Amherst

This talk will describe the research that will be conducted in a three year study that is to be funded by the Nature Conservancy and which will interface with research underway by the US Army Corps of Engineers. The research will address four broad objectives. First, estimates will be made of the impacts of future climate change in the river’s flows. This is necessary to ensure that the operational changes suggested will be appropriate for future evaluation of the river system. This will be accomplished both with outputs for General Circulation Models and with watershed and statistical hydrology models. Second, tools capable of creating short-term and seasonal streamflow forecasts will be developed to better inform decisions concerning current operations. In addition, an optimization model will be developed to complement other on-going modeling (being performed by the US Army Corps of Engineers) to explicitly illustrate the potential improvement that can be made in system operations and to quantify clearly the trade-offs that exist between operating goals (such as replicating historic variability of flooding, maximizing hydropower, increasing habitat and habitat continuity, etc.).  Finally, to ensure that the results of this research will be relevant and instructive, the researchers will design and implement a stakeholder involvement program for the study. This research will ensure stakeholder involvement in all stages of the research, particularly in the creation of streamflow forecasts that are easy to use, in defining the components of the optimization model to ensure that all important system features are included and properly simulated, and to identify measures of system performance that will capture the wide range of interests held by the citizens of the basin.

Declining Minimum Flows in the Quinsigamond River
Mauri Pelto, Nichols College, and Margaret Kearns, Mass. Department of Fish and Game Riverways Program

The minimum discharge in the Quinsigamond River has declined substantially in the last decade from previous levels. USGS gaging stations continuously record flow on the Quinsigamond River. For the 1940-1980 period the USGS reported a 7Q10 (this is the lowest 7 consecutive days of discharge that can be expected in a ten year period) for Quinsigamond River of 0.48 cfs. A revised 7Q10 is 0.04 cfs for Quinsgamond River. In the Quinsigamond River, discharge below 0.1 cfs for seven consecutive days is nearly an annual event. With an area of 25.6 square miles the discharge is 0.004 cfsm. This is insufficient to meet any standard for aquatic life to prosper. An examination of the tributaries feeding Lake Quinsigamond indicated low flow in each, with a number running dry for periods during several recent summers. Stretches of the Quinsigamond also ran dry. Overall monthly flow for July and August has been declining as well. The substantial decline in minimum flow suggests the 7Q10 must be rewritten. At minimum water levels. streams and rivers experience a rise in temperature and a reduction in dissolved oxygen falling to critical levels for many aquatic species. Low flows result in reduced dilution of pollutants loads and concentrating pollutants and nutrients. Low flows cause stagnant conditions in ponds and lakes fed by the streams, increasing the likelihood of algal blooms and desiccation of streamside and wetland. Low flows also restrict recreation and pumping of water from adjacent aquifers. The additional flow stress for the Quinsigamond River is not addressed with current watershed management practices. The lack of flow issuing from Lake Quinsigamond also indicates a reduced circulation through this lake. This presentation examines the reduction in minimum flows and the three potential causes: climate changes, land use changes, and water withdrawal changes.

Uncertainty in the Difference Between Maps of Future Land Change Scenarios
Robert Gilmore Pontius Jr. and Neeti Neeti, Clark University

It is essential to measure whether maps of various scenarios of future land change are meaningfully different, because the differences among such maps serve to inform land management. This presentation compares the output maps of different scenarios of future land change in a manner that contrasts two different approaches to account for the uncertainty of the simulated projections. The simpler approach interprets the scenario storyline concerning the quantity of each land change transition as assumption, and then considers the range of possibilities concerning the value added by a simulation model that specifies the spatial allocation of land change. The more complex approach estimates the uncertainty of future land maps based on a validation measurement of with historic data. The technique is illustrated by a case study that compares two scenarios of future land change in the Plum Island Ecosystems of northeastern Massachusetts, USA. Results show that if the model simulates only the spatial allocation of the land changes given the assumed quantity of each transition, then there is a clearly bounded range for the difference between the raw scenario maps, but if the uncertainties are estimated by validation, then the uncertainties can be so great that the output maps do not show meaningful differences. We discuss the implications of these results for a future research agenda of land change modeling. We conclude that a productive approach is to use the simpler method to distinguish clearly between variations in the scenario maps that are due to scenario assumptions versus variations due to the simulation model.

Assessment of the Response of Hydrology and Water Quality of Forest Watersheds in the Northeast to Climate Change using a Biogeochemical Model (PnET-BGC)
Afshin Pourmokhtarian , Charles Driscoll, Civil & Environmental Engineering, Syracuse University; John Campbell, US Forest Service, Durham, NH

Climate is an important regulator of hydrology, forest ecosystems and biogeochemical processes within ecosystems, therefore functionality of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems is altered by changes in climate. A critical component of assessment of the impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems involves understanding associated changes in the biogeochemical cycling of elements. Biogeochemical watershed models are an important tool to help to understand the long-term effects of climate change on ecosystems. In this study, we used a biogeochemical model (PnET-BGC) to evaluate the effects of potential future changes in temperature, precipitation, solar radiation and atmospheric CO2 on pools and fluxes of major elements at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (HBR) in New Hampshire, and Huntington Wildlife Forest (HWF) in the Adirondack Mountains, New York. Future emissions scenarios are monthly output from three atmosphere-ocean general circulation models (AOGCMs; HadCM3, PCM, GFDL) in conjunction with potential lower and upper bounds of projected atmospheric CO2 (550 and 970 ppm by 2099, respectively).
AOGCM results over the 21st century indicate an average increase in temperature ranging from 1.9 to 6.9°C and 1.9 to 7.0°C with simultaneous increases in precipitation ranging from 12.5 to 13.9% and 11.9 to 12.2% above the long term mean (1970-1999) for HBR and HWF, respectively. Watershed modeling results show a significant shift in hydrology with earlier spring discharge (snowmelt), greater evapotranspiration, and later snowpack development. Model results also show an increase in NO3- leaching due to large increases in net mineralization and nitrification. The watershed responses of other major elements such as SO4- and Ca2+, and chemical characteristics such as pH and ANC to changes in climate varied due to site characteristics and historical land disturbance. Sensitivity analysis showed that the temperature is the key driver of watershed responses to future climate change resulting in the greatest variability to simulated changes.

A GIS-based Water Budget Tool for Subwatersheds of the Taunton River Watershed, Massachusetts
Neal Price, Horsley Witten Group, Sandwich, MA

The Taunton River is the longest un-dammed coastal river in New England. With a watershed area encompassing approximately 562 square miles, it is the second largest watershed in Massachusetts. It is also one of the flattest, with only a twenty-foot elevation drop along its forty-mile main stem length. The basin contains 108 sub-watersheds and encompasses all or part of 43 municipalities.
The water balance in a watershed describes the natural equilibrium of inputs and exports of water. Alterations to the natural water cycle occur primarily as a result of the human necessities of water supply withdrawals, wastewater discharges, and stormwater management that change the volumes and rates of water exchange between precipitation, surface water, groundwater and the atmosphere.
A water budget tool was developed for this study to evaluate the hydrologic impacts associated with water supply withdrawals, wastewater discharges and stormwater runoff associated with land uses. The method uses a mass balance approach that accounts for net changes in groundwater recharge as it relates to base flow to streams and wetlands on an annual basis. It estimates stream base flow changes resulting from water withdrawal, water transfer, wastewater discharges and stormwater runoff associated with different land uses. The tool was originally developed as a spreadsheet pilot study, and then converted to a GIS-based script capable of automating the procedure for all 108 subwatersheds. The water balance tool revealed that many sub-watersheds in the upper Taunton Watershed are highly out of balance compared to natural conditions as a result of water transfers. The tool can also be used to evaluate alternative management scenarios such as changes in wastewater collection systems, water conservation measures to reduce water withdrawal volumes and improved stormwater management.

Meeting Anticipated TMDL Requirements for the Concord River by Addressing Phosphorus Loadings
Robert Rafferty and Bridget Zwack (Presenter), Woodard & Curran, Andover, MA

The Town of Billerica, Massachusetts, located in the Concord River Watershed, received its draft NPDES discharge permit calling for a significant reduction in phosphorus from the local treatment facility. Facing an expensive treatment plant upgrade to reach the new limits, the Town was proactive in identifying additional avenues to reduce phosphorus loads to river.
Using the draft Nashua River Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) requirements as a potential model, Woodard & Curran worked with the Town to evaluate total phosphorus loadings to sub-basins within the watershed, point sources from the local treatment plant, and non-point sources of phosphorus from stormwater runoff and septic systems.
Findings indicated that treatment plant loads can be further reduced by implementing Industrial Pretreatment Program (IPP) limits. However, stormwater runoff contributes a significant loading to the river:
•           Point and non-point sources each make up approximately 50% of the phosphorus loads, so the treatment plant and stormwater runoff equally contribute to the loading.
•           Septic systems only contribute 5% of the non-point source problem; stormwater runoff contributes 95%.
•           Two sub-basins within the watershed contribute approximately 20% of the total runoff load to the river.
The two sub-basins that contribute 20% of the loading were identified as prioritized areas to assess structural and non-structural low-impact development (LID) best management strategies for phosphorus load reductions to meet the impending TMDL Potential impacts to the river are also being evaluated.
This paper will examine the various phosphorus sources as they pertain to Billerica, show the process by which phosphorus loads were estimated from each potential source, describe the BMP retrofit evaluation program, and provide recommendations for implementation that may seem to go against conventional wisdom. 

Evaluating Human Health Risks from Pharmaceuticals and other Personal Care Products Present in Drinking Water: Methodological Issues
Joseph Rodricks, ENVIRON International Corporation, Arlington, VA

Methods used to assess human health risks from exposures to contaminants of drinking water have been in place since the late 1970s. Results from the application of these methods are used to establish limits on contaminant concentrations that, if consumed daily for a full lifetime, should be without adverse health effects. The scientific data used as the basis for such risk assessments may arise from the results of observational epidemiology studies (e.g. arsenic, benzene, lead) or, when such studies are lacking or are inadequate, from the results of experimental studies in animals. The discovery that active pharmaceutical ingredients and several types of consumer and personal care products can be present in finished drinking water presents new challenges to risk assessment. Types of scientific information that are almost never available for industrial chemicals – namely, information from randomized, controlled clinical trials (RCTs) – play the critical role in the evaluation of the safety and efficacy of pharmaceuticals. Questions thus arise regarding the appropriate use of clinical data and information on therapeutic efficacy in establishing drinking water limits. A brief synopsis of risk assessment will be offered, to set the stage for a discussion of the novel issues that arise in applying these methods to pharmaceuticals and other substances for which clinical study data are available.

Treatment of EDC / PPCPs Using Advanced Oxidation Processes
Erik Rosenfeldt, Civil & Environmental Engineering, UMass Amherst

 Extremely low levels of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) have been detected in wastewaters, groundwaters, surface waters, and even treated drinking waters. While many questions are raised regarding the toxicological importance of trace levels of these contaminants in water, public perception and the professional engineering edict of protecting human and environmental health to the greatest extent demands we examine treatment of these contaminants to reduce their presence from our water supply.
Many studies have examined the efficiency of conventional and advanced treatment options for EDCs and PPCPs in wastewater and drinking water treatment, and successful treatment processes each possess advantages and disadvantages. For example, if one were to physically remove the contaminants from water (via membrane separations or adsorption processes), the presence of high levels of untreated EDCs or PPCPs in backwash or reject streams must be considered to avoid improper disposal of potentially hazardous compounds,  and perpetual revolutions of the removal/disposal cycle. In addition, chemical oxidation processes (such as chlorine, ozone, and advanced oxidation) can lead to a suite of often unidentified products which may or may not contain residual EDC or PPCP activity.
This work offers an overview of utilizing advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for treatment of EDCs and PPCPs in water. Results will be presented from several studies examining treatment of these compounds in drinking water, surface water, and even treated wastewater; from the perspective of contaminant oxidation via AOP and from the perspective of removal of contaminant associate biological activity. In addition, issues related to utilizing AOP in practice for treatment of these contaminants will be explored.

Septic Systems as a Source of Pharmaceuticals, Hormones, and Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals to the Shallow Groundwater on Cape Cod
Ruthann Rudel, Silent Spring Institute, Newton, MA

Domestic wastewater contains numerous contaminants that have been linked to endocrine disruption. These are discharged to septic systems through the use of products such as pesticides, plastics, and household products, as well as excretion of pharmaceuticals and endogenous estrogens.
The shallow aquifers and surface waters fed by them on Cape Cod are particularly vulnerable to contamination from septic systems, the predominant waste disposal system in the region, because of the porous nature of the soils and the close proximity between septic drain fields and groundwater levels. In addition, the shallow aquifer is the sole source of drinking water on Cape Cod and is the major source of recharge for the ponds. Thus, a variety of factors converge on Cape Cod suggesting it is an important focus for the study of septic system impacts to freshwater resources. Elevated rates of breast and prostate cancer--which do not appear to be due to in-migration, screening, or demographics — provide a sense of urgency to research that will describe the nature of these impacts.
Silent Spring Institute has been investigating water contamination issues from wastewater disposal on Cape Cod for over 10 years. We have documented the presence of EDCs in several private drinking water wells on the Cape and tracked the transport and fate of a plume of septic wastewater containing EDCs as it entered the shallow aquifer. In a recent study, we documented the presence of EDCs and pharmaceuticals in several aquifer-fed Cape Cod ponds likely to be influenced by septic systems from nearby homes. Results demonstrated that EDC and pharmaceutical concentrations were higher in higher residential density (HRD) ponds than in low residential density (LRD) ponds. Estrogenic hormones were detected in HRD ponds on Cape Cod at concentrations nearing those that cause intersex condition in fish. Because ponds are recharged by groundwater on the Cape, this study suggests that groundwater quality in areas of high residential density are affected by EDCs and pharmaceuticals. This raises concerns about drinking water quality as well, because all Cape drinking water also comes from groundwater, and these emerging contaminants are not regulated or monitored in public drinking water supplies.
This is a critical time to address wastewater contamination of the Cape Cod aquifer. The Cape population relies almost entirely on septic systems for wastewater disposal; however, because of nutrient contamination in groundwater and surface water, many Cape Cod communities are currently considering investments in centralized wastewater treatment and other strategies to mitigate wastewater impact. Research in this area provides critical new information about emerging contaminants to inform these significant decisions.

Water, Energy, and Drought: Water Use for Energy Production in the U.S.
Seth Sheldon, Environmental, Earth, and Ocean Sciences, UMass Boston

Here we analyze the water use rates for thermoelectric power generation with respect to cooling system, plant type, plant age, geographic location and its relation to regional drought conditions between 2001-2005. Open loop plants withdraw roughly two orders of magnitude more water than closed loop plants, while consuming (i.e., lose water to evaporation) about the same amount. A high degree of variability for water withdrawal and consumption rates exists for low capacity facilities. The highest withdrawal rates are in the southeastern part of the United States. Power to Water supply curves show that power generation limits exist for the various cooling types (i.e. at some point, a large increase in water withdrawal corresponds to only a small increase in power generation). Water supply curves also show the degree to which total power generation might decline if water withdrawal rates had to be reduced due to prolonged and severe drought. Facilities having the highest withdrawal rates are the most susceptible to prolonged and severe drought. The point at which power generation begins to be significantly affected by drought depends upon cooling type (e.g. open freshwater, closed tower with forced draft). For example, if each plant that uses a closed loop, forced draft cooling system were limited to a water withdrawal rate of 100 cubic feet per second, total power generation for that category would only be reduced about 8 gigawatts. This means that if the maximum allowable withdrawal rate were reduced by 50 percent from 200 cubic feet per second, the total power generation would only be reduced 10 percent. The plants that are most susceptible to prolonged and severe drought are Southeastern, 20- to 70-year-old coal and coke plants, which use freshwater, open loop cooling systems. These same facilities are responsible for generating the greatest amount of electricity in the US.          

Climate Change Adaptation for a Coastal Watershed: Identifying Risk and Costs for Culvert Infrastructure
Michael Simpson, Environmental Studies, Antioch University New England

Numerous studies have detected intensification of precipitation events consistent with climate change projections, as reported in the Fourth Assessment of the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Communities may have a window of opportunity to prepare water resources infrastructures. However, information sufficiently reliable and specific to support local-scale adaptation programs is sparse
The Piscataqua Region Estuaries Partnership (PREP) is one of twenty-eight National Estuary Programs administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The National Estuary Program is developing climate change adaptation strategies through its “Climate Ready Estuaries” initiative. As part of this initiative, PREP convened a technical team to conduct a climate adaptation project in the Oyster River watershed in southeast New Hampshire.
The study utilized geographic information system watershed modeling techniques to examine the hydrologic impact of climate change and land use scenarios on existing culvert infrastructure. All culverts in the watershed were assessed and mapped with a standardized protocol. Data on culvert capacity and land use were used to create a nested GIS model that calculates current and projected runoff volumes for the 24-hour, 25-year precipitation event. Based on current zoning ordinance regulations, two build-out analyses were developed for the study watershed. These build-out scenarios were combined with an estimated, mid-21st century storm magnitudes and return intervals based upon the IPCC’s  B1 and A1F1 global greenhouse gas emission scenarios. The output of these analyses demonstrated which culverts were at risk for each modeled scenario.
Utilizing the model results, the project team developed recommendations for culvert improvements based on risk, cost, and infrastructure lifespan considerations. This study demonstrates the implementation of a quantified, local-scale, and actionable protocol for maintaining historical risk levels for communities facing significant impacts from climate change and population growth.

Modeling the Fate and Transport of Hydrocarbons released from Oil Slicks in a Reservoir
Christina Stauber, J.E. Tobiason, D.P. Ahlfeld, Civil & Environmental Engineering, UMass Amherst

Oil spill modeling in reservoir water is an important tool for predicting and understanding the behavior of potential contaminate spills. Two and three dimensional reservoir modeling of the Wachusett Reservoir has been conducted for the past several years at UMass Amherst.  CE QUAL W2, a two dimensional, laterally averaged hydrodynamic and water quality model, was adapted to model gas transfer for this research.  Version 3.5 of this program provided the ability to model 28 water quality constituents and any number of generic constituents defined by a zero or first order decay rate, settling velocity, and/or Arrhenius temperature rate multiplier.
Three mechanisms for hydrocarbon release were considered in order to simulate the occurrence of an oil spill into a reservoir: 1.) Direct dissolution of the hydrocarbon from the oil slick to the water column, 2.) oil droplet dispersion (via wave action) resulting in direct dissolution of the hydrocarbon, and 3.) gas transfer of the hydrocarbon from the water column to the atmosphere.  Direct dissolution and oil droplet dispersion were modeled in Excel.  A gas transfer factor for generic constituents was introduced to the CE QUAL W2 code to model hydrocarbon release into the atmosphere.
Model results confirm that containing an oil slick in a small area is an effective way to keep hydrocarbon concentrations below regulatory levels. The rates of direct dissolution and oil dispersion increase proportionally with the size of the oil slick. Model results indicate that gas transfer of hydrocarbons from the water column removes a significant percentage of the hydrocarbons that enter the water column from the oil slick, allowing for more time to properly contain the spill before harmful levels of hydrocarbons reach the drinking water intake. 

Comparison of Automated and Manual Methods for Solid Phase Extraction of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
Kirsten Studer and David Reckhow, Environmental Engineering, UMass Amherst

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are part of an emerging group of contaminants that have been noted for their presence at low concentrations in surface and ground waters. Due to the analytical challenges posed by low levels of EDCs in drinking water, new techniques for the detection and quantification of estrogenic compounds have been the subject of intense investigation. From the wide variety of EDCs, this research focuses on a selected group due to their endocrine-disrupting potential and their presence in natural water supplies. The set of compounds includes diethylstilbestrol, estriol, estradiol, 17β-ethynylestradiol, and estrone. There are many protocols for measuring organic contaminants at trace levels in water, and most call for some pre-concentration, separation and cleanup. Solid phase extraction (SPE) is one of the most widely used methods for pretreatment of these samples. Because of the slow and laborious nature of most SPE protocols, there is great interest in ways of reducing time and cost in EDC analysis. Several instruments which integrate automated SPE with LC/MS have been proposed for addressing these needs. This research compared one of the accepted manual methods (EPA 1694 Method for Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products) with an innovative approach using an automated SPE/LC/MS for trace analysis of EDCs. For this work we have selected the Waters AquaAnalysis System. The comparison shows a decrease in error when using the automated version because of the elimination of sample transfers and possible contaminants entering the samples throughout the extraction steps. A significant decrease in cost was also noted when using the automated extraction due to the decrease in labor hours and in the cost of consumables. Since the automated method requires less raw sample, there is a large reduction in cost for sample collection and shipment even prior to extraction.

A Proposed Massachusetts Private Well Testing Act
Kurt Tramposch, SuAsCo Watershed Council, Wayland, MA

Mandatory well testing provides a source of extensive data about the quantity, quality, location and even history of water that better informs state and regional groundwater models being used by water suppliers, policy analysts, regulators, engineers and geologists. The growing demand and dependence on groundwater by individuals, industry, agriculture and communities requires coordination and vigilance to ensure that this limited resource remains safe and is equitably shared.
Today more than 550,000 Massachusetts residents depend completely on private wells for domestic potable water, but few know whether their well water is safe or of high quality. Sixty-one of the Commonwealth’s 351 cities and towns are entirely dependent on private wells for residential water supplies. While approximately 205 communities have health board regulations that govern their wells, only ten communities have comprehensive regulations with minimal requirements for well siting, construction, and water quality. Another 60 communities have no regulations governing private water sources though thousands of drinking wells are installed each year and thousands more are installed for geothermal heating/irrigation.
Several Pennsylvania and New York counties and the states of New Jersey and Rhode Island have laws or regulations that require private water supply wells to be tested when sold, using an impressive battery of water quality parameters including metals, pathogens, organics, and radionuclides.  Reviews indicate that laboratories certified to do this testing have markedly improved standards and reduced costs. Moreover, the real estate industry has benefited from well testing and water safety disclosure to potential buyers similar to environmental disclosures for lead, asbestos, formaldehyde, radon, and onsite septic testing. Specific data is kept confidential and administrative overhead is minimal.
Massachusetts and the EPA control certain aspects of wells (e.g., Title V setbacks), but private wells remain the most significant public health water gap today, and are left to the erratic oversight of local health boards and building inspectors.

Changes in the Fractionation, Concentrations, and Speciation of Aluminum in Surface Waters Across the Northeastern U.S.A. Following Reductions in Acidic Deposition: 1986-2001
Richard Warby, ENVIRON International Corporation, Site Solutions, Princeton NJ; Chris Johnson and Charles Driscoll, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Syracuse University

Following reductions in acidic deposition since its peak in 1973, research focus has shifted from studying the effects of acidic deposition to the recovery of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Understanding the speciation of Al is critical to assessments of the effects of acidification and recovery from these effects, as not all forms of Al are equally toxic and changes in the supply of complexing ligands will alter this toxicity. As such, we surveyed 113 lakes in the northeastern U.S. in 2001 that had previously been sampled in 1986 to evaluate the effects of reductions in acidic deposition on the concentrations and speciation of aluminum (Al). Ubiquitous decreases were observed in the concentrations of total Al, and inorganic monomeric aluminum (Ali) across the region. Total Al decreased from a median value of 1.45 to 1.01 µmol L-1 across the region, with the largest decrease in the Adirondacks (4.60 µmol L-1 to 2.59 µmol L-1). Monomeric organic aluminum (Alo) also decreased across the region and in all the subregions except the Adirondacks. The speciation of Ali shifted from largely Al-F complexes in 1986 to largely Al-OH complexes in 2001 in ponds whose concentrations were above the detection limit (> 0.7 µmol L-1). In 2001 only 7 sample lakes, representing a population of 130 lakes in the region, had Ali concentrations above a toxic limit of 2 µmol L-1 compared with 20 sample lakes, representing 449 lakes in 1986. Thus, we estimate that more than 300 lakes in the northeastern United States no longer have summer Ali concentrations at levels considered harmful to aquatic biota.

Characterizing the Proteins in Domestic Wastewater Effluent Discharged to the Connecticut River Using Proteomic Analysis
Pamela Westgate and Chul Park, Civil & Environmental Engineering, UMass Amherst

Proteins constitute one of the largest fractions of organic material in secondary effluent from domestic wastewater treatment plants, and are a significant source of organic N released into receiving waters. Wastewater effluents from two wastewater treatment plants in Western Massachusetts were analyzed for protein content and activity. Effluents were concentrated using ammonium sulfate precipitation, and the component proteins subsequently separated using sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and zymogramic electrophoresis. The results showed that some protein bands in primary effluent are also present in the secondary effluent, indicating the recalcitrance of some sewage proteins. These proteins are released into the Connecticut River. The presence of these same bands in secondary effluent that was filtered through a 0.45µm filter is an indication that a filtration step would not prevent the release of these particular proteins. Other bands that are visible in the secondary effluent are not found in the primary effluent, thus those proteins are produced in the activated sludge process. Zymogram electrophoresis of concentrated and raw effluents showed that some of the proteins in both primary and secondary effluent are proteolytic enzymes. The parameters of total protein, inorganic nitrogen, organic nitrogen, COD, and TSS were also measured from primary and pre-chlorinated secondary effluents from each plant.
It is thought that any proteins in secondary effluent are not biologically available given that they have survived the treatment processes in the plants; however, this has not been shown. This initial characterization of proteins is the first step in determining the impact of proteins in wastewater effluent on receiving waters. Future work will focus on identifying individual proteins and building a protein dataset that will enable tracking of effluent proteins in the environment.

Groundwater Natural Resource Damages Assessment: A New Restoration Tool for Massachusetts
Dale Young and Karen Pelto (Presenter), Mass. Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs  

The Commonwealth of Massachusetts’ ground and surface waters are interconnected and renewable hydrological resources whose protection and restoration are critical to insure the availability of safe and potable drinking water for current and future needs; promote sustainable and equitable development; and sustain water-dependent ecosystems. Groundwater restoration encompasses a wide range of strategies to develop, protect, maintain and conserve current and potential drinking water supplies as well as offset ecological impacts related to diminished water quantity or quality.
Natural resource damages assessment (NRD) is a legal tool available to compensate the public for injury to groundwater resulting from the release of contaminants by restoring groundwater resources and the services they provide. In 2008, a $1 million NRD settlement with Textron Systems Corporation, a defense contractor that conducted weapons testing in a section of the Massachusetts Military Reservation, compensated the public for natural resources and services lost due to Textron’s release of contaminants in a major groundwater recharge area for the Cape Cod Sole Source Aquifer.
The Massachusetts Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs will describe the groundwater NRD assessment and restoration planning process. Over the coming year, groundwater restoration projects will be implemented to achieve one or more of the following objectives: Protect the quality of current and potential drinking water supplies by protecting aquifers, recharge areas, and watersheds, including environmentally sensitive lands and critical habitats; protect the quantity of current and potential drinking water supplies by implementing measures to conserve water, reduce losses of clean water to aquifers, and provide quality recharge to aquifers, including offsets that also mitigate impacts to water-dependent ecosystems; or integrate planning and management of current and potential drinking water supplies and wastewater treatment, with an emphasis on the efficient use of land, energy, and water and regional or multi-community benefits.

Flow Restoration in a Large River Basin: Characterizing Hydrologic Alteration and Developing Conservation Strategies for the Connecticut River, USA
Julie Zimmerman, Alex Lester, Kimberly Lutz (Presenter), The Nature Conservancy; Ben Letcher, USGS; Keith Nislow, USDA Forest Service

We examined the spatial distribution of hydrologic alteration among the Connecticut River and its 44 major tributaries as a tool for watershed-scale conservation planning and to assist in development of strategies for mitigating threats to aquatic ecosystems in the basin. Specifically, we (1) examined the spatial extent and distribution of hydrologic alteration by developing indices of potential flow alteration for individual watersheds, (2) analyzed data from US Geological Survey stream gages with sufficient periods of record (i.e., at least 20-years pre- and post- dam construction) to determine the types and degree of hydrologic alteration, and created unimpaired flow data sets for rivers of conservation interest that did not have sufficient flow data, (3) analyzed hourly flow data over a 9-year period to examine diurnal flow fluctuations below hydropower dams compared with reference sites and identify individual sites that had short-term flow variability that was higher than expected for reference locations and (4) Examined the authorized water withdrawals and discharges in the Connecticut and Massachusetts portions of the Connecticut River watershed. Our results form the basis for flow restoration plans, both to protect areas with low risk for hydrologic alteration and to develop strategies to mitigate threats in higher-risk watersheds.  These analyses will be used to prioritize restoration efforts based on hydrologic analyses and presence of conservation targets (species and natural communities of conservation interest), and select locations eligible for more detailed site-specific hydrologic and ecological studies.