LITERATURE CITED

Allen, T. F. H., R. V. O'Neill, and T. W. Hoekstra. 987. Inter-level relations in ecological research and management: some working principles from hierarchy theory. J. of Applied Systems Analysis 14:63-79.

Allen, T. F. H., and T. B. Starr. 1982. Hierarchy: Perspectives for Ecological Complexity. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 310 pp.

Baker, W. L., and Y. Cai. 1992. The r.le programs for multiscale analysis of landscape structure using the GRASS geographical information system. Landscape Ecology 7: 291-302.

Baskent, E. Z., and G. A. Jordan. 1995. Characterizing spatial structure of forest landscapes. Can. J. For. Res. 25:1830-49.

Bradshaw, G. A. 1991. Characterizing canopy gap structure in forests using wavelet analysis. J. Ecol. 80:205-215.

Burgess, R. L., and D.M. sharpe, eds. 1981. Forest Island Dynamics in Man-Dominated Landscapes. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Burrough, P. A. 1986. Principles of Geographical Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment. Monographs on Soil and Resources Survey No. 12. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Clark, P. J., and F. C. Evans. 1954. Distance to nearest neighbor as a measure of spatial relationships in populations. Ecology 35:445-453.

Dale, M. R. T. 1999. Spatial pattern analysis in plant ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Dale, M. R. T. 2000. Lacunarity analysis of spatial pattern: a comparison. Landscape Ecol. 15:467-468.

Dunning, J. B., B. J. Danielson, and H. R. Pulliam. 1992. Ecological processes that affect populations in complex landscapes. Oikos 65:169-175.

Fahrig, L., and G. Merriam. 1985. Habitat patch connectivity and population survival. Ecology 66:1762-1768.

Fahrig, L., and J. Paloheimo. 1988. Effect of spatial arrangement of habitat patches on local population size. Ecology 69:468-475.

Ford, E. D., and E. Renshaw. 1984. The interpretation of process from pattern using two-dimensional spectral analysis: modeling single species patterns in vegetation. Vegetatio 56:113-123.

Forman, R. T. T., and M. Godron. 1986. Landscape ecology. Wiley, New York.

Forman, R. T. T. 1995. Land mosaics: the ecology of landscapes and regions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

Fortin, M.-J. 1994. Edge detection algorithms for two-dimensional ecological data. Ecology 75:956-965.

Fortin, M.-J., R. J. Olson, S. Ferson, L. Iverson, C. Hunsaker, G. Edwards, D. Levine, K. Butera, and V. Klemas. 2000. Issues related to the detection of boundaries. Landscape Ecol. 15:453-466.

Fortin, M.-J., and P. Drapeau. 1995. Delineation of ecological boundaries: comparison of approaches and significance test. Oikos 72:323-332.

Gardner, R. H., B. T. Milne, M.G. Turner, and R.V. O'Neill. 1987. Neutral models for the analysis of broad-scale landscape pattern. Landscape Ecol. 1:19-28.

Gardner, R. H., and R. V. O'Neill. 1991. Pattern, process, and predictability: the use of neutral models for landscape analysis. Pages 289-307 in Turner and Gardner (1991)

Gardner, R. H., R. V. O’Neill, and M. G. Turner. 1993. Ecological implications of landscape fragmentation. Pages 208-226 in S. T. A. Pickett and M. G. McDonnell, editors. Humans as components of ecosystems: subtle human effects and ecology of population areas. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Greig-Smith, P. 1983. Quantitative plant ecology. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Gustafson, E. J., and G. R. Parker. 1992. Relationships between landcover proportion and indices of landscape spatial pattern. Landscape Ecology 7:101-110

Gustafson, E. J. 1998. Quantifying landscape spatial pattern: What is the state of the art. Ecosystems:143-156.

Haila, Y., I. K. Hanski, and S. Raivio. 1987. Breeding bird distribution in fragmented coniferous taiga in southern Finland. Ornis Fennica 64:90-106.

Hargis, C. D., J. A. Bissonette, and J. L. David. 1998. The behavior of landscape metrics commonly used in the study of habitat fragmentation. Landscape Ecol. 13:167-186.

Harris, L. D. 1984. The Fragmented Forest: Island Biogeographic Theory and the Preservation of Biotic Diversity. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 211 pp.

Haydon, D. T., J. K. Friar, and E. R. Pianka. 2000. Fire-driven dynamic mosaics in the Great Victoria Desert, Australia. Landscape Ecol. 15:407-423.

He, H.S., and D.J. Mladenoff. 1999. Spatially explicit and stochastic simulation of forest-landscape fire disturbance and succession. Ecology 80:81-99.

Jaeger, J. A. G. 2000. Landscape division, splitting index, and effective mesh size: new measures of landscape fragmentation. Landscape Ecol. 15:115-130.

Johnson, A. R., B. T. Milne, J. A. Wiens, and T. O. Crist. 1992. Animal movements and population dynamics in heterogeneous landscapes. Landscape Ecol. 7:63-75.

Kareiva, P. 1990. Population dynamics in spatially complex environments: theory and data. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 330:175-190.

Keitt, T.H., D.L. Urban, and B.T. Milne. 1997. Detecting critical scales in fragmented landscapes. Conservation Ecol. 1(1):4. (online)

Kolasa, J., and C. D. Rollo. 1991. Introduction: The heterogeneity of heterogeneity: a glossary. Pages 1-23 In J. Kolasa and S. T. A. Pickett, eds., Ecological Heterogeneity. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Kotliar, N. B., and J. A. Wiens. 1990. Multiple scales of patchiness and patch structure: a hierarchical framework for the study of heterogeneity. Oikos 59:253-260.

LaGro, J., Jr. 1991. Assessing patch shape in landscape mosaics. Photogrammetric Eng. Remote Sens. 57:285-93.

Legendre, P., and M.-J. Fortin. 1989. Spatial pattern and ecological analysis. Vegetatio 80:107-38.

Legendre, P, and L. Legendre. 1999. Numerical Ecology, second edition. Elsevier Science, New York.

Leopold, A. 1933. Game Management. Charles Scribners, New York.

Li, H., and J.F. Reynolds. 1993. A new contagion index to quantify spatial patterns of landscapes. Landscape Ecol. 8:155-162.

Li, H., and J. F. Reynolds. 1995. On definition and quantification of heterogeneity. Oikos 73:280-284.

MacArthur, R.H., and E.O. Wilson. 1967. The theory of island biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton.

Mandelbrot, B. B. 1982. The Fractal Geometry of Nature. W. H. Freeman and Co., New York.

McGarigal, K., and B.J. Marks. 1995. FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. Gen. Tech. Report PNW-GTR-351, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.

McGarigal, K., and W.C. McComb. 1995. Relationships between landscape structure and breeding birds in the Oregon Coast Range. Ecol. Monogr. 65:235-260.

Milne, B.T. 1991. Lessons from applying fractal models to landscape patterns. Pages 199-235 in Turner, M.G., and R.H. Gardner, editors. Quantitative methods in landscape ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Musick, H. B., and H. D. Grover. 1991. Image textural measures as indices of landscape pattern. Pages 289-307 in Turner, M.G., and R.H. Gardner, editors. Quantitative methods in landscape ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Noss, R.F. 1983. A regional landscape approach to maintain diversity. BioScience 33:700-706.

Noss, R.F., and A.Y. Cooperrider. 1994. Saving Nature's Legacy : Protecting and Restoring Biodiversity. Island Press.

O'Neill, R.V., J.R. Krummel, R.H. Gardner, G. Sugihara, B. Jackson, D.L. DeAngelis, B.T. Milne, M.G. Turner, B. Zygmunt, S.W. Christensen, V.H. Dale, and R.L. Graham. 1988. Indices of landscape pattern. Landscape Ecol. 1:153-162.

Pickover, C. A. 1990. Computers, pattern, chaos and beauty: graphics from an unseen world. New York: St. Martin’s.

Pielou, E.C. 1984. The interpretation of ecological data. Wiley, new York.

Plotnick, R. E., R. H. Gardner, and R.V. O'Neill. 1993. Lacunarity indices as measures of landscape texture. Landscape Ecol. 8:201-211.

Plotnick, R. E., R. H. Gardner, W. W. Hargrove, K. Pretegaard, and M. Perlmutter.1996. Lacunarity analysis: a general technique for the analysis of spatial patterns. Phys. Rev. E53:5461-5468.

Renshaw, E., and E. D. Ford. 1984. The description of spatial pattern using two-dimensional spectral analysis. Vegetatio 56:75-85.

Ricklefs, R. E. 1987. Community diversity: relative roles of local and regional processes. Science 235:167-171.

Ritters, K. H., R. V. O'Neill, C. T. Hunsaker, J. D. Wickham, D. H. Yankee, S. P. Timmins, K. B. Jones, and B. L. Jackson. 1995. A factor analysis of landscape pattern and structure metrics. Landscape Ecol. 10: 23-40.

Robbins, C. S., D. K. Dawson, and B. A. Dowell. 1989. Habitat area requirements of breeding forest birds of the middle Atlantic states. Wildl. Monogr. 103. 34 pp.

Rosenberg, D. K., B. R. Noon, and E. C. Meslow. 1997. Biological corridors: form, function, and efficacy. BioScience 47:677-687.

Roughgarden, J., S. D. Gaines, and S. W. Pacala. 1987. Supply side ecology: the role of physical transport processes. Pages 491-518 In J. H. R. Gee and P. S. Giller, eds. Organization of Communities Past and Present. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.

Saunders, D. A., R. J. Hobbs, and C. R. Margules. 1991. Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: a review. Cons. Biol. 5:18-32.

Shannon, C., and W. Weaver. 1949. The mathematical theory of communication. Univ. Illinois Press, Urbana.

Simpson, E. H. 1949. Measurement of diversity. Nature 163:688.

Temple, S. A. 1986. Predicting impacts of habitat fragmentation on forest birds: a comparison of two models. Pages 301-304 In J. Verner, M. L. Morrison, and C. J. Ralph, eds. Wildlife 2000: Modeling Habitat Relationships of Terrestrial Vertebrates. Univ. of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI.

Terborgh, J. 1989. Where Have all the Birds Gone? Princeton University Press, New Jersey. 207 pp.

Turner, M. G. 1989. Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 20:171-197.

Turner, M. G. 1990. Spatial and temporal analysis of landscape patterns. Landscape Ecol. 4:21-30.

Turner, M. G., and R. H. Gardner, editors. 1991. Quantitative methods in landscape ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Urban, D. L., R. V. O'Neill, and H. H. Shugart, Jr. 1987. Landscape ecology: A hierarchical perspective can help scientist understand spatial patterns. BioScience 37:119-127.

Vaisanen, R. A., O. Jarvinen, and P. Rauhala. 1986. How are extensive, human-caused habitat alterations expressed on the scale of local bird populations in boreal forest? Ornis Scandinavica 17:282-292.

Wallin, D. O., F. J. Swanson, B. Marks, J. H. Cissel, and J. Kertis. 1996. Comparison of managed and pre-settlement landscape dynamics in forests of the Pacific Northwest, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 85:291-309.

Whitcomb, R. F., J. F. Lynch, M. K. Klimkiewwicz, C. S. Robbins, B. L. Whitcomb, and D. Bystrak. 1981. Effects of forest fragmentation on avifauna of the eastern deciduous forest. Pages 125-205 in R. L. Burgess and D. M. Sharpe, editors. Forest island dynamics in man-dominated landscapes. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Wiens, J. A. 1989. Spatial scaling in ecology. Functional Ecol. 3:385-397.

Wiens, J. A. 1981. Scale problems in avian censusing. Studies in Avian Biology 6:513-521.

Wiens, J.A. 1976. Population responses to patchy environments. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 7:81-120.

Wilcox, B.A., and D.D. Murphy. 1985. Conservation strategy: the effects of fragmentation on extinction. American Naturalist 125:879-887.

Wimberly, M. C., T. A. Spies, C. J. Long, and C. Whitlock. 2000. Simulating historical variability in the amount of old forests in the Oregon Coast Range. Conservation Biology 14:167-180.

With, K. A. 1997. The application of neutral landscape models in conservation biology. Conservation Biology 11:1069-1080.

With, K. A. 1999. Is landscape connectivity necessary and sufficient for wildlife management? Pages 97-115 in J. A. Rochelle, L. A. Lehmann, and J. Wisniewski, editors. Forest fragmentation: wildlife and management implications. Brill, The Netherlands.

With, K. A., and A.W. King. 1999a. Dispersal success on fractal landscapes: a consequence of lacunarity thresholds. Landscape Ecology 14:73-82.

With, K. A., and A.W. King. 1999b. Extinction thresholds for species in fractal landscapes. Conservation Biology 13:314-326.