Hist692A Fall 2004 9/16/2004

Comparative Scientific Traditions:

From the Ancient World to the Green Revolution

A number of years ago, the fortuitous publication of several historical and anthropological studies of science in Greece, China, the Arab world, aboriginal Australia, and Micronesia, inspired me to design a course comparing western and non-western scientific traditions. But what seemed relatively straightforward several years ago, has since become anything but. In the last five years, increasingly vocal arguments -- by feminists, historians of science, social constructivists, Third World critics, and a growing number of defenders of the scientific status quo -- about the nature of scientific authority and the role of science in the rise of the west have made the design of such a course exciting indeed! It has become virtually impossible even to begin pondering what it might mean -- or might have meant -- to do science in distant times and other places without confronting controversies surrounding contemporary western definitions of science and scientific practice. Wondering about science in ancient China, the South Pacific, or even ancient Greece leads, it turns out, smack onto the battlefields of both the science wars and the culture wars! So, rather than avoiding what once upon a time might have seemed irrelevant distractions, I have decided to grab the bull by the horns and incorporate controversy into a syllabus designed with three ends in mind: 1) to introduce you to a growing body of scholarship dealing with non-Western science; 2) to open up the historiographical issues involved in identifying and exploring "science" outside the modern western paradigm; and 3) to ponder the reasons why efforts to understand science elsewhere and elsewhen have become a magnet for divisive arguments about the moral and intellectual foundations of modern life.

Students will write several short historiographical papers that will be submitted in advance of the seminar for which they were prepared, forming the basis of that seminar's discussion. Grades will be based on the quality of both the written work and performance in discussions. Books are available at Amherst Books in town.

1. Classical Roots.

2. Islam and Medieval Europe.

3. Early China.

4. Western Exceptionalism: Standard Narratives and Scientific Revolutions.

5. Empire and Colonial Agency.

6. Mappings: Imperial and Otherwise.

7. Development and Cold War.

8. Another Reason: Indian Responses.

9. Ethnomathematics, The Quantifying Spirit, and Cultures of Objectivity.

10. The Problem of Multicultural Science.

Classical Roots

•(September 20)

Geoffrey Lloyd and Nathan Sivin, The Way and the Word: Science and Medicine in Early China and Greece (2002).

F. Rochberg, "Introduction: The Cultures of Ancient Science," Isis 83(4) (1992): 547-553.

David Pingree, "Hellenophilia versus the History of Science," ditto, pp.554-563.

Heinrich von Staden, "Affinities and Elisions: Helen and Hellenocentrism," ditto, pp.578-595.

Martin Bernal, "Animadversions on the Origins of Western Science," ditto, pp.596-607.

Islam and Medieval Europe

•(September 27)

Toby Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West (1993), Chapters 1-6.

H. Floris Cohen, Chapter Six, "The Nonemergence of Early Modern Science outside Western Europe," pp.378-417 in The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry (1994).

A. I. Sabra, "Science, Islamic," Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1988), ed. J. R. Strayer.

Aydin Sayili, "The Causes of the Decline of Scientific Work in Islam," Appendix II in The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory (1960).

J. J. Saunders, "The Problem of Islamic Decadence," Journal of World History 7 (1963): 701-720.

Early China

•(October 4)

Huff, Chapters 7-Epilogue.

Joseph Needham, "Poverties and Triumphs of the Chinese Scientific Tradition," in The Grand Titration (1969).

Nathan Sivin, "Why the Scientific Revolution Didn't Take Place in China - Or Did It?," in Tradition and Transformation in the Sciences (1984).

Roger Hart, "On the Problem of Chinese Science"(1998), in The Science Studies Reader (1999), ed. Mario Biagoli.

Kenneth R. Stunkel, "Technology and Values in Traditional China and the West," Comparative Civilizations Review 23 and 24 (1991): 75-91; 58-75.

Francesca Bray, "Technics and Civilization in Late Imperial China: An Essay in the Cultural History of Technology," in Beyond Josesph Needham: Science, Technology, and Medicine in East and Southeast Asia, ed. Morris Low, Osiris 13 (1998): 11-33.

Western Exceptionalism: Standard Accounts and Scientific Revolutions

•(October 13: This is a Thursday class!)

Michael Adas, "Attributes of the Dominant: Scientific and Technological Foundations of the 'Civilizing Mission'," Chapter 4 in Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (1989).

Gross and Levitt, Chapter 2, "Some History and Politics: Natural Science and Its Natural Enemies," in Higher Superstition.

Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams, "De-centring the 'Big Picuture': The Origins of Modern Science and the Modern Origins of Science," British Journal for the History of Science 26 (1993): 407-432.

H. Floris Cohen, "The Scientific Revolution: Fifty Years in the Life of a Concept," Chapter 7 in The Scientific Revolution.

Science, Empire, and Colonial Agency

•(October 18)

George Basalla, "The Spread of Western Science," Science 156 (1967): 611.

Michael Adas, "Recovering the Agency of the Colonized: Patterns of Scientific and Technological Transfer in British India, c.1780-1940," paper presented at the Princeton Workshop in the History of Science, October, 1998.

James McClellan, "Colonialism and Science in the Old Regime," ibid.

Paolo Palladino and Michael Worboys, "Science and Imperialism," Isis 84 (1993): 91-102.

Lewis Pyenson, "Cultural Imperialism and Exact Sciences Revisited," ibid., pp.103-108.

Lucile Brockway, " Kew and Cinchona," in Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanic Gardens (1979).

Bruce Hunt, "Doing Science in a Global Empire: Cable Telegraphy and Electrical Physics in Victorian Britain," in Victorian Science in Context (1997), ed. B. Lightman.

David Wade Chambers, "Locality in the History of Science: Colonial Science, Technoscience, and Indigenous Knowledge," in Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, ed. Roy MacLeod, Osiris 15 (2001): 221-240.

Mappings: Imperial and Otherwise

•(October 25)

Matthew Edney, Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765-1843 (1990), Chapters 1-5.

J. B. Harley, "Maps, Knowledge, and Power," in The Iconography of Landscape (1988), ed. D. Cosgrove and S. Daniels.

•(November 1)

Edney, Mapping an Empire, Chapters 6-10.

Damon Salesa, “Finding and Forgetting the Way: Navigation and Knowledge in Samoa and Polynesia,” paper presented to the Princeton Workshop in the History of Science, February 13, 2004, personal copy.

John Law, "On the Methods of Long-distance Control: Vessels, Navigation, and the Portuguese Route to India," Power, Action, and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge? (1986).

Development and Cold War

(November 8)

Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution (4 th printing 2000).

Walter Rostow, "The Five Stages of Growth - A Summary," Chapter 2 in The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (1960).

W. Wayt Gibbs, "Lost Science in the Third World," Scientific American (August 1995): 92-99.

Sigrid Schmaltzer, “Breeding a Better China: Pigs, Practices, and Place in a Chinese County, 1929-1937,” The Geographical Review 92(1) (2002): 1-22.

Deepak Kumar, "Reconstructing India: Disunity in the Science and Technology for Development Discourse, 1900-1947," in Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, ed. Roy MacLeod, Osiris 15 (2001): 241-257.

Peter Neushul and Lawrence Badash, "Harvesting the Pacific: The Blue Revolution in China and the Philippines," in Beyond Josesph Needham: Science, Technology, and Medicine in East and Southeast Asia, ed. Morris Low, Osiris 13 (1998): 186-209.

Another Reason: Indian Responses

•(November 15)

Gyan Prakash, Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India (1999).

Jatinder K. Bajaj, "Francis Bacon, the First Philosopher of Modern Science: A Non-Western View," in Ashis Nandy, ed., Science, Hegemony and Violence: A Requiem for Modernity (1988).

S. Sangwan, "Why Did the Scientific Revolution Not Take Place in India?" in Science and Empire (1991), ed. Deepak Kumar.

Gross and Levitt, "The Gates of Eden," in Higher Superstition.

Meera Nanda, "The Science Wars in India," Dissent 44(1) (1997): 78-83.

Thomas Ewbank, "The World a Workshop" (1855), in Thomas Hughes, Changing Attitudes Toward American Technology.

•(TBA: Monday is Thursday this week!)

Prakash, Another Reason.

Ethnomathematics, The Quantifying Spirit, and Cultures of Objectivity

•(November 29)

Helen Watson-Verran and David Turnbull, "Science and Other Indigenous Knowledge Systems," in Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (1995), ed. Sheila Jasanoff, Gerald Markle, James C. Petersen, and Trevor Pinch.

Helen Verran, “Logic and Mathematics: Challenges Arising in Working Across Cultures,” in Mathematics Across Cultures (2000), ed. Helaine Selin.

Jean Lowe, "The Values of Quantification," in Power, Action and Belief (1986).

Ted Porter, "Cultures of Objectivity," in Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (1995).

M. Norton Wise, "Introduction," "Part I - Traveling," "Part II - The Age of Steam and Telegraphy," "Part III - 'Today Precision Must Be Commonplace'," in The Values of Precision (1995), ed. M. Norton Wise.

Lorraine Daston, "Objectivity and the Escape from Perspective," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 597-618.

David Landes, "The Greatest Necessity of Every Rank of Men," Chapter 4 in Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (1983).

The Problem of Multicultural Science

•(December 6)

Sandra Harding, Chapters 1-8, Is Science Multicultural: Postcolonialisms, Feminisms, and Epistemologies (1998).

Paul Gross and Norman Levitt, Chapter One, "The Academic Left and Science," Higher Superstition (1994).

Norton Wise, "The Enemy Without. The Enemy Within: A Review of Gross and Levitt, Higher Superstition" Isis 87 (1996).

Liz McMillen, "The Science Wars Flare at the Institute for Advance Study," Chronicle of Higher Education, May 16, 1997, A13.

Mario Bunge, "In Praise of Intolerance to Charlatanism in Academia," in The Flight from Science and Reason (1996), ed. Paul Gross, Norman Levitt, and Martin Lewis.

•(December 13)

Sandra Harding, Chapters 9-11, Is Science Multicultural?

Gross and Levitt, "Does It Matter?", concluding chapter in Higher Superstition.

Ian Hacking, "The Disunities of the Sciences," in The Disunity of Science: Boundaries, Contexts, and Power (1996), ed. Peter Galison and David Stump.

Dorothy Nelkin, "The Science Wars: Responses to a Marriage Failed," in Science Wars (1996), ed. Andrew Ross.

Paul Gross, "Introduction," in Gross, Levitt, and Lewis, eds., The Flight from Science and Reason.

David Turnbull, “Rationality and the Disunity of the Sciences,” in Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Mathematics (2000), ed. Helaine Selin.

Resources

The place to begin is with the recent bibliographic works of Helaine Selin: Science across Cultures : An Annotated Bibliography of Books on Non-Western Science, Technology, and Medicine (1992); Selin and Xiaochun Sun, Astronomy across Cultures : The History of Non-Western Astronomy (2000); Selin, Mathematics across Cultures : The History of Non-Western Mathematics (2000); and Selin, Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (1997). For China, of course, there is the epic, multi-volumed, and on-going Science and Civilization in China, initiated by Joseph Needham in 1954. The History of Science Society annual has two recent volumes devoted to relevant topics: Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, ed. Roy MacLeod, Osiris 15 (2001); and Beyond Josesph Needham: Science, Technology, and Medicine in East and Southeast Asia, ed. Morris Low, Osiris 13 (1998). And not to be overlooked is the annual Isis Current Bibliography which offers impressive and easily searched coverage of relevant publications. For the price of membership to the Society, one can gain access to the on-line version of this essential database.

Bibliography

(This is a somewhat idiosyncratic list and very much a work in progress!)

Bottom

"Mathematics in Medieval Islam." Enyclopedia Britannica 23 (1991): 613-15.

Adas, Michael. Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance, 1989.

al-Hassan, Ahmed, and Donald Hill. Islamic Technology. An Illustrated History. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986.

Alvares, Claude. Homo Faber, 1980.

Anderson , Robert S. Building Scientific Institutions in India: Saha and Bhabha. Montreal: Centre for Developing-Area Studies, 1975.

Arnold, David. Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India, 1993.

Austin, Ralph A., and Daniel Headrick. "The Role of Technology in the African Past." African Studies Review 26(3-4) (1983): 163-84.

Aveni, A. F., ed. Archaeoastronomy in the New World, 1982.

Aveni, Anthony. Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico, 1980.

Bailes, Kendall. Science and Russian Culture in an Age of Revolutions: V.I. Vernadsky and His Scientific School, 1863-1945. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990.

Bartholomew, James R. The Formation of Science in Japan: Building a Research Tradition. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.

Bartholomew, James. "Japanese Culture and the Problems of Modern Science." In Science and Values, edited by Arnold Thackray and Everett Mendelsohn. New York: Humanities Press, 1974.

Baum, Richard. "Science and Culture in Contemporary China." Asian Survey 22(12) (1982): 1166-86.

Bary, W. Theodore de, Wing-tsit Chan, and Burton Watson, eds. Sources of Chinese Tradition (Chapter V: Logic and Cosmology), 1960.

Black, Cyril, et al. The Modernization of Japan and Russia: A Comparative Study. London, 1976.

Bray, Francesca. "Eloge [for Joseph Needham]." Isis 87 (1996): 312-16.

Brockway, Lucile H. Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanic Gardens, 1979.

Cardwell, D.S.L. "Science, Technology, and Economic Development: The British Experience." In Science, Technology, and Economic Development: A Historical and Comparative Study, edited by W. Beranek and G. Ranis, 1978.

Carrasco, Pedro. "The Political Economy of the Aztec and Inca States." In The Inca and Aztec States 1400-1800, edited by George Collier, Renato Rosaldo and John Wirth, 1982.

Carter, T. F. "Islam as a Barrier to Printing." In In the Invention of Printing in China, 1955.

Carter, T. F. The Invention of Printing in China and Its Spread Westward. New York: Ronald Press, 1955.

Choudhuri, Arnab Rai. "Practising Western Science Outside the West: Personal Observations on the Indian Scene." Social Studies of Science 15 (1985): 475-505.

Crump, Thomas. The Anthropology of Numbers, 1990.

Cullen, C. "Motivations for Scientific Change in Ancient China: Emperor Wu and the Grand Inception Astronomical Reforms of 104 B.C." Journal for the History of Astronomy 24 (1993): 185-203.

Cunningham, Andrew, and Perry Williams. "De-Centring the 'Big Picuture': The Origins of Modern Science and the Modern Origins of Science." BJHS 26 (1993): 407-32.

Dorn, Harold. "Science, Marx, and History: Are There Still Research Frontier?" Perspectives on Science 8(3) (2000): 223-54.

Eberhard, Wolfram. "The Political Function of Astronomy and Astronomers in Han China." In Chinese Thought and Institutions, edited by John K. Fairbank. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957.

Elvin, Mark. The Pattern of China's Past. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1973.

Gernet, J. "Space and Time, Science and Religion in the Encounter between China and Europe." Chinese Science 11 (1993/4): 93-102.

Gibbs, W. Wayt. "Lost Science in the Third World." Scientific American 273(2) (1995): 92-99.

Goldman, Merle, and Denis Fred Simon. "Introduction: The Onset of China's New Technological Revolution." In Science and Technology in Post-Mao China, edited by Denis Fred Simon and Merle Goldman. Cambridge, MA: The Council on East Asian Studies at Harvard University, 1989.

Graham, A. C. " China, Europe, and the Origins of Modern Science: Needham's the Grand Titration." In Chinese Science: Explorations of an Ancient Tradition, edited by Nathan Sivin and S. Nakayama, 45-69. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1973.

Graham, Loren. What Have We Learned About Science and Technology from the Russian Experience?, 1998.

Hadingham, Evan. Lines to the Mountain Gods: Nazca and the Mysteries of Peru, 1987.

Harding, Sandra. Is Science Multicultural? Postcolonialisms, Feminisims, and Epistemologies, 1998.

Harley, J. B., and David Woodward, eds. The History of Cartography, 1987-1994.

Haskins, C. H. "The Reception of Arabic Science in England." English Historical Review 30 (1911): 56-69.

Hepburn, Sharon. "Western Minds, Foreign Bodies." Medical Anthropology Quarterly?? (1986?): 59-74.

Hess, David. Science and Technology in a Multicultural World: The Cultural Politics of Facts and Artifacts. New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.

Hostetler, Laura. Qing Colonial Enterprise: Ethnography and Cartography in Early Modern China, 2001.

Hu, Danian, "Organized Criticism of Einstein and Relativity in China, 1968-1976," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 34(2) (2004): 311-338.

Hu, Danian, China and Albert Einstein: The Reception of the Physicist and His Theory in China, 1917-1979, forthcoming [2004].

Huff, Toby. The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Hussaini, S. W. A. "Toward the Rebirth and Development of Shariyyah Science and Technology." MAAS Journal of Islamic Science 1(2) (1985): 81-94.

Inkster, Ian. "Prometheus Bound: Technology and Industrialization in Japan, China, and India Prior to 1914: A Political Economy Approach." Annals of Science 45 (1988): 399-426.

Kennedy, E. S. "The Exact Sciences in Timurid Iran." In The Cambridge History of Iran, 1986.

Kim, Yung Sik. The Natural Philosophy of Chu Hsi, 2000.

Kroll, J. L. "Disputation in Ancient Chinese Culture." Early China 11-12 (1985/87): 119-45.

Kwa, Chunglin. "Representations of Nature Mediating between Ecology and Science Policy." Social Studies of Science 17 (1987): 413-42.

Lindberg, David. Theories of Vision from Al-Kindi to Kepler. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976.

Livingston, Eric. "The Ethnomethodological Foundations of Mathematics." (1986).

Lloyd, G. E. R. Adversaries and Authorities: Investigations into Ancient Greek and Chinese Science, 1996.

MacLeod, Roy. "On Visiting the 'Moving Metropolis': Reflections on the Architecture of Imperial Science." In Scientific Colonialism: A Cross-Cultural Comparison, edited by Nathan Reingold and Marc Rothenberg, 1987.

Maier, John. "Thirty Years of Computer Development in the People's Republic of China: 1956-1985." Annals of the History of Computing 10(1) (1988): 19-34.

Makdisi, George. "On the Origin and Development of the College in Islam and the West." In Islam and the Medieval West, edited by Khalil I. Seeman. Albany: SUNY Press, 1980.

"Mathematics in China and Japan." Enyclopedia Britannica 23 (1991): 633b-e.

Nakayama, S. "The Empirical Tradition: Science and Technology in China." In Half the World, edited by Arnold Toynbee, 1973.

Nakayama, Shigeru. Academic and Scientific Traditions in China, Japan, and the West, 1984.

Nasr, S. H. Science and Civilization in Islam, 1968.

Needham, Joseph. "Attitudes Towards Time and Change as Compared with Europe." In Science in Traditional China: A Comparative Perspective. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1979.

Parayil, Govindan. "The Green Revolution in India: A Case Study of Technological Change." T&C 33(4) (1992): 737-56.

Pedersen, Johannes. The Arabic Book. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984.

Peng-yoke, Ho. "The Astronomical Bureau of Ming China." Journal of Asian History 3-4 (1969): 139-53.

Perkovich, George. India's Nuclear Bomb: University of California Press, 1999?

Pfaffenberger, Bryan. "The Harsh Facts of Hydraulics: Technology and Society in Sri Lanka's Colonization Schemes." T&C 31(3) (1990): 361-97.

Pingree, David. "Astronomy and Astrology in India and Iran." Isis 54 (1963): 229-46.

Porter, Roy. The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity, 1998.

Qian, Wen-yuan. The Great Inertia: Scientific Stagnation in Traditional China, 1985.

Rahman, A. Trimurti: Science, Technology and Society. New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 1972.

Rashed, R. "Science as a Western Phenomenon." Fundamenta Scientiae 1 (1980): 7-21.

Rashed, Roshdi, ed. The Encyclopedia of the History of Arab Science: Routledge, 1996.

Reardon-Anderson, James. The Study of Change: Chemistry in China, 1840-1949. Cambridge, 1991.

Reddy, A. K. N. "Alternative Technology: A View from India." Social Studies of Science 5(3) (1975): 331-42.

Redfield, Peter. Space in the Tropics: From Convicts to Rockets in French Guiana, 2000.

Restivo, Sal. Mathematics in Society and History, 1992.

Rosenberg, Nathan. "The Role of Science and Technology in the National Development of the United States." In Science, Technology, and Economic Development: A Historical and Comparative Study, edited by Jr. W. Beranek and Gustav Ranis, 1978.

Rosenthal, Franz. Science and Medicine in Islam, 1991.

Sabra, A. I. "Situating Arabic Science: Locality Versus Essence." Isis 87 (1996): 654-70.

Sabra, A. I. "The Andalusian Revolt against Ptolemaic Astronomy." In Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences, edited by Everett Mendelsohn. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Sabra, A. I., "The Appropriation and Subsequent Naturalization of Greek Science in Medieval Islam: A Preliminary Assessment." History of Science 25 (1987): 236-38.

Sabra, A. I., "The Scientific Enterprise." In Islam and the Arab World, edited by Bernard Lewis, 1976.

Saliba, George, "The Development of Astronomy in Medieval Islamic Society." Arab Studies Quarterly 4(3) (1982): 223.

Saliba, George, "The Role of Maragha in the Development of Islamic Astronomy: A Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance." Revue de Synthese 4(3/4) (1987): 361-73.

Sardar, Z. "Where's Where? Mapping out the Future of Islamic Science." MAAS Journal of Islamic Science 4 (1988): 35-63.

Savage-Smith, Emilie. "Gleanings from an Arabist's Workshop: Current Trends in the Study of Medieval Islamic Science and Medicine." Isis 79 (1988): 246-72.

Schwartz, Benjamin. The World of Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985.

Selin, Helaine. Science across Cultures: An Annotated Bibliography of Books on Non-Western Science, Technology, and Medicine. Hamden, CT: Garland Publishing, 1993?

Sertima, Ivan Van, "The Lost Sciences of Africa: An Overview." In Blacks in Science: Ancient and Modern, 1986.

Sertima, Ivan Van, ed. Blacks in Science: Ancient and Modern. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1986.

Shiva, Vandana. "The Violence of Reductionist Science." Alternatives 12 (1987): 243-61.

Sivin, N. Medicine, Philosophy, and Religion in Ancient China, Vol. 2, 1995.

Sivin, Nathan. "Science and Medicine in Imperial China--the State of the Field." Journal of Asian Studies 47(1) (1988): 41-90.

Sivin, N., "Why the Scientific Revolution Did Not Take Place in China -- or Didn't It?" In Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences, edited by Everett Mendelsohn. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Sivin, N., ed. Technology in East Asia, 1977.

Sivin, N., Science in Ancient China, Vol. 1, 1995.

Staden, Heinrich von. "Affinities and Elisions: Helen and Hellenocentrism." Isis 83(4) (1992).

Stunkel, Kenneth R. "Technology and Values in Traditional China and the West." Comparative Civilizations Review 23 and 24 (1991): 75-91; 58-75.

Suttmeier, Richard. "Science, Technology, and China's Political Future -- a Framework for Analysis." In Science and Technology in Post-Mao China, edited by Denis Fred Simon and Merle Goldman. Cambridge, MA: The Council on East Asian Studies at Harvard University, 1989.

Turner. Science in Medieval Islam, 1998?

Unschuld, Paul. Medicine in China: A History of Ideas. Berkeley: University of California, 1985.

Visvanathan, Shiv. Organizing for Science, 1985.

Vogel, Hans Ulrich. "The Great Well of China." Scientific American June (1993): 116-21.

Wertheim, Margaret. "The Way of Logic." New Scientist December 2 (1995): 38-41.

White, Harry. "The Fate of Independent Thought in Traditonal China." Journal of Chinese Philosophy 18 (1991): 53-72.

White, Jr., Lynn and Jonathan Spence. "Review Symposia: Science in China." Isis 75(1) (1984): 180-89.

Wright, David. "The Translation of Modern Western Science in 19th-Century China, 1840-1895." Isis 89 (1998): 654-70.

Yukawa, Hideki. Tabibito (the Traveler). Singapore: World Scientific, 1982.

Zuidema, Tom. "Bureaucracy and Systematic Knowledge in Andean Civilization." In The Inca and Aztec States 1400-1800, edited by George Collier, Renato Rosaldo and John Wirth, 1982.